Rocks around the InSight lander were measured in lander orthoimages of the near field (<10 m), in panoramas of the far field (<40 m), and in a high-resolution orbital image around the lander (1 km2). The cumulative fractional area versus diameter size-frequency distributions for four areas in the near field fall on exponential model curves used for estimating hazards for landing spacecraft. The rock abundance varies in the near field from 0.6% for the sand and pebble rich area to the east within Homestead hollow, to ~3-5% for the progressively rockier areas to the south, north and west. The rock abundance of the entire near field is just over 3%, which falls between that at the Phoenix (2%) and Spirit (5%) landing sites. Rocks in the far field (<40 m) that could be identified in both the surface panorama and a high-resolution orbital image fall on the same exponential model curve as the average near field rocks. Rocks measured in a high-resolution orbital image (27.5 cm/pixel) within ~500 m of the lander that includes several rocky ejecta craters fall on 4-5% exponential model curves, similar to the northern and western near field areas. As a result, the rock abundances observed from orbit falls on the same exponential model rock abundance curves as those viewed from the surface. These rock abundance measurements around the lander are consistent with thermal imaging estimates over larger pixel areas as well as expectations from fragmentation theory of an impacted Amazonian/Hesperian lava flow.

In this paper, we present the results obtained in the determination of the true North direction on Mars by using a gnomon on the InSight mission and compare the measurements with either the North determination from the Inertial Measurement Unit and Imaging analysis. The obtained measurement has been use to populate the SEIS orientation information in the archived SEIS data. Images taken during December 2018 and January 2019 allows to determine the gnomon shadow position and length over a target. By calculating the Sun local coordinates using planetary ephemeris VSOP87, the images are used to estimate the true North direction on the landing site. By using eight different images, we obtain the true North direction with an accuracy up to $2.5^{\circ}$, which is confirmed by the IMU and Imaging analysis. The true North direction is also confirmed by an image taken near local noon, when the sun crosses the meridian. The North determination precision is then discussed in view of the seismic determination of the back-azimuth.

Martian atmospheric dust is a major driver of weather, with feedbacks between atmospheric dust distribution, circulation changes from radiative heating and cooling driven by this dust, and winds that mobilize surface dust and distribute it in the atmosphere. Wind-driven mobilization of surface dust is a poorly understood process due to significant uncertainty about minimum wind stress, and whether saltation of sand particles is required. This study utilizes video of six Ingenuity helicopter flights to measure dust lifting during helicopter ascents, traverses, and descents. Dust mobilization persisted on take-off until the helicopter exceeded 3 m altitude, with dust advecting at 4-6 m/s. During landing, dust mobilization initiated at 2.3-3.6 m altitude. Extensive dust mobilization occurred during traverses at 5.1-5.7 m altitude. Dust mobilization threshold friction velocity of rotor-induced winds during landing are modelled at 0.4-0.6 m/s (factor of two uncertainty in this estimate), with higher winds required when the helicopter was over undisturbed terrain. Modeling dust mobilization from >5 m cruising altitude indicates mobilization by 0.3 m/s winds, suggesting non-saltation mechanisms like mobilization and destruction of dust aggregates. No dependence on background winds was seen for the initiation of dust lifting, but one case of takeoff in 7 m/s winds created a track of darkened terrain downwind of the helicopter, which may have been a saltation cluster. When the helicopter was cruising at 5-6 m altitude, recirculation was seen in the dust clouds.

Rock heights and three-dimensional shapes around the InSight lander in Homestead hollow, Mars, provide new constraints on modification of the degraded 27 m in diameter impact crater and are a tool for characterizing degradation on regolith-covered lava plains on Mars. Decreasing average rock height and increasing percentage of fragments where height comprises the short axis from outside to within the hollow supports significant ejecta deflation accompanied by infilling of the interior. Rock relief outside the hollow is compared with expectations of pristine ejecta thickness and indicates up to ~40 cm of near-rim early deflation (decreasing to a few cm out to one diameter) can account for the predicted eolian component of infilling and that other eolian infilling sources are not required. Scattered rocks in the hollow are ejecta from subsequent nearby impacts and their mostly buried expression is consistent with subsequent long-term degradation estimated to be 10-4 m/Myr. Basalt rock shapes at InSight are likely similar to basalt rock shapes on Earth, but appear more platy, bladed, and elongate in a triangular form factor plot and more discoidal and bladed in an axes ratio plot. Nevertheless, addition of 10 cm to near rim rock heights to account for continued partial embedding in ejecta would result in rock shapes quite similar to terrestrial rocks. Consistency between degradation estimates based on current rock relief and rock shape after accounting for partial embedding in ejecta indicates up to ~30-40 cm early (~0.1 Ga) near-rim deflation was followed by much lesser long-term degradation.

We utilise SuperCam’s Mars microphone to provide information on wind speed and turbulence at high frequencies on Mars. This is achieved through a correlation analysis between the microphone and meteorological data which shows that the microphone signal power has a consistent relationship with wind speed and air temperature. A calibration function is constructed using Gaussian process regression (a machine learning technique) to use the microphone signal and air temperature to produce an estimate of the wind speed. This wind speed estimate is at a high rate for in situ measurements on Mars, with a sample every 0.01 s. As a result, we determine the fast fluctuations of the wind at Jezero crater which highlights the nature of wind gusts over the martian day. We evaluate the normalised wind standard deviation (gustiness) on the estimated wind speed to analyse the turbulent behaviour. Correlations are shown between the evaluated gustiness statistic and pressure drop rates, temperature, energy fluxes and optical opacity to characterise the behaviour of high frequency turbulent intensity at Jezero crater. This has implications for future atmospheric models on Mars, taking into account turbulence at the finest scales.

One of the next giant leaps for humanity—inhabiting our neighbor planet Mars—requires enough water to support multi-year human survival and to create rocket fuel for the nearly 150-million-mile return trip to Earth. Water that is already on Mars, in the form of ice, is one of the leading in situ resources being considered in preparation for human exploration. Human missions will need to land in locations with relatively warm temperatures and consistent sunlight. But in these locations, ice (if present) is buried underground. Much of the ice known to exist in mid-latitude locations was likely emplaced under climate conditions (and orbital parameters) different from today. So in addition to providing an in-situ resource for human exploration, Martian ice also provides a crucial record of planetary climate change and the effects of orbital forcing.This presentation will highlight techniques and recent activities to characterize Mars’ underground ice, such as the Subsurface Water Ice Mapping (SWIM) Project (Morgan et al. 2021, Nature Astro.; Putzig et al. In Press, Handbook of Space Resources; Putzig et al. this AGU; Morgan et al. this AGU). We present outstanding questions that will be vital to address in the context of ISRU (in situ resource utilization) and connections between these questions and the climate in which the ice was emplaced and evolved (e.g., Bramson et al. 2020, Decadal White Paper). Lastly, we discuss how these science activities intersect with future exploration, particularly that enabled by collaborations between space agencies as well as industry partners (Heldmann et al. 2020, Decadal White Paper; Golombek et al. 2021, LPSC).High-priority future work includes better orbital characterization of shallow ice deposits, such as radar sounding at shallower scales (<~10m) than that of SHARAD, as proposed for the International Mars Ice Mapper. Also needed are detailed studies of the engineering required to build potential settlements at specific candidate locations; this includes characterization of the nature of the overburden above the ice, which will inform future resource extraction technology development efforts. Ideally, initial landing sites would be chosen with a long-term vision which includes preparation and development of the basic technologies and designs needed for human landing on Mars.