3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The functional and pasting properties of the native and fermentedacha flour and cookies samples were presented in Table 1. The
loose and tapped bulk density of Acha flour and cookie samples
was observed to decrease significantly (P<0.05) with increased
fermentation duration. The values ranged from 0.490 to 0.568 g/ml and
0.777 to 0.842 g/ml respectively for the flour sample, and 0.494 to
0.527g/ml and 0.710 to 0.867g/ml for the cookie samples. The highest
value was observed in native acha flour and cookie samples while
least value was observed in sample fermented for 72 h. The decrease
observed in the loose and tapped bulk density might possibly result from
increased particle breakdown of the fibrous materials during
fermentation (Olapade et al., 2014). According to Nzigamasabo and
Hui (2006), pectinolytic and cellulotic enzymes are elaborated by
fermenting microorganisms and aid in the breakdown of cell membranes.
The formation of carbon dioxide gas during fermentation, which causes
the bubbles to grow in size and increase in volume may also be the
reason of the decrease in bulk density of flour samples with longer
fermentation durations (Elmehdi et al., 2007). The cookie
sample’s low loose bulk density suggests that less food would be
packaged in a constant volume, which ensures cheap packaging. The
ability of flour to absorb water and swell, improving food consistency,
is known as its water absorption capacity. In food systems, WAC is
desired to increase yield, consistency, and food body (Osundahunsiet al., 2003). There was significant (P<0.05) decrease
in the water absorption capacity of the flour (1.08 to 1.29g/g) and
cookie samples (0.76 to 0.89g/g) with increase in fermentation duration.
Highest value was observed in native acha flour while least value
was observed in sample fermented for 72 h. The alteration of
macromolecules during fermentation may be the cause of the samples’
decreased water absorption capacity (Oloyede et al. , 2016). The
result is consistent with the pattern observed by Ogodo et al .
(2018) in their research on lactic acid bacteria-fermented soybean flour
and Ntsamo et al. (2020) on fermentation on sorghum flour
properties. Giami and Bekebain (1992) also found that longer
fermentation durations greatly reduced the microbial activity of food
products that have low water absorption capacities. As a result, the
product’s shelf life would be increased. The oil absorption capacity
ranged between 0.72 – 0.64 g/g for the flour sample, and 0.65 to
0.77g/g for the cookie sample. With increased fermentation duration,
there was no significant (P>0.05) increase in the samples’
oil absorption capacity. Acha flour fermented for 72 h had the
highest oil absorption capacity value while native acha flour had
the least value. Intrinsic variables like as protein structure,
hydrophobicity or surface polarity may be responsible for the increase
in oil absorption capacity with increased fermentation durations
(Chandra and Samsher, 2013). The study of Oloyede et al. (2015)
and Periago et al. (1998) on pea flour and moringa seed flour
respectively, showed similar findings. Flour samples with good oil
absorption capacity are suitable for food preparations that require oil
mixing, such as bakery products, where oil is an essential ingredient
(Sobowale et al ., 2021). The dispersibility of the flour and
cookie samples varies significantly (P<0.05) as the values
increased with increase in fermentation duration. Acha flour
fermented for 72 h had the highest dispersibility value while nativeacha flour had the least value. Higher dispersability value
enables the flour to reconstitute more readily in water (Adebowaleet al . 2008). This indicates that the flour samples’ capacity to
reconstitute effectively in water has been improved by fermentation.
This suggests that the cookies samples could digest easily (Adebowaleet al ., 2008). The swelling capacity and solubility index of the
flour and cookie samples decreased with an increase in fermentation
period. This might be related to the granules degree of association and
binding force (Hoover, 2002). The values obtained in this study for the
functional properties of cookies conform to the report of Razzaqet al. (2012).
It has been established that the most assessed set of flour quality
attributes is its pasting properties, which accurately indicate the
quality of the flour (Offia-Olua, 2014). With an increase in the
duration of fermentation, there was a significant (P<0.05)
decrease in the peak viscosity of the flour samples. The achaflour sample that was fermented for 72 h had the lowest value, while the
native acha flour had the highest value. The similar
phenomena have been reported for rice flour by Min et al. (2004), Yong
and Tao (2008), Lu et al. (2005), and soybean flour by Olanipekun et al.
(2009). The ability of the starch granules in the flour sample to bind
water is indicated by the decrease in peak viscosity of the flour
samples with an increase in fermentation duration. As shown in Table 1,
the peak viscosity of the cookie sample increased significantly
(P<0.05) with increase in fermentation duration. High peak
viscosity also indicates the fragility of the swelled granules, which
swell initially before disintegrating due to the Rapid Visco Analyzer
constant mixing (Adebowale et al ., 2008; Sanni et al .,
2006). The trough viscosity values of the flour sample decreased
gradually with an increase in fermentation duration. The decrease in
trough viscosity with increase in fermentation duration may be due to
the swelling capacity of the starch granules in flour samples (Ohizuaet al. , 2017). The flour samples generally had high trough
values, indicating higher cooked paste stability and a higher ability to
withstand shear at elevated temperatures (Farhat et al. , 1999).
The trough viscosity values of the cookie samples increase significantly
(p<0.05) with increase in fermentation duration. The breakdown
viscosity values of the flour samples decreased with an increase in the
fermentation duration. The highest break down value was obtained in
native acha flour while the least was obtained in sample
fermented for 72 h. A study by Chinma et al . (2010) also revealed
that low breakdown values suggest that the starch in question has
cross-linking characteristics whereas high breakdown values show that
the swollen starch granules are relatively weak against hot shearing.
The lower breakdown viscosity values of flour samples obtained in this
study indicate high fermentation duration impact into the flour sample
ability to possess cross-linking properties and also high stability
against hot shearing. The breakdown values of the cookie sample
increased significantly (p<0.05) as fermentation duration
increased. Better palatability is indicated by a higher breakdown
viscosity (Tren et al ., 2001). The final viscosity values of the
flour was observed to decrease significantly (P<0.05) with
increased fermentation duration. The simple kinetic effect of cooling on
viscosity and the re-association of starch molecules in the samples may
be the cause of the change in the final viscosity with longer
fermentation durations (Ikegwu et al ., 2009). The relatively high
value of final viscosity of the acha flour samples suggests the
ability of the flour samples to form more viscous pastes. The final
viscosity values of the cookie samples increased significantly
(P<0.05) with increase in fermentation duration. The final
viscosity changes as fermentation time increases and this was due
to high amylose content of the cookie samples and hydrogen bonding
during cooling. (Alais and Linden, 1986 cited by Iwe et al .,
2016). The retrogradation of the flour-based product during cooling
decreases with increasing setback value (James and Nwabueze, 2014). As
the duration of fermentation increased, the setback viscosity values of
the flour samples decreased significantly (P<0.05) reduced.
The setback viscosity value was highest in native acha flour
while the least value was observed in sample fermented for 72 h. This
indicates that increase in fermentation duration has improved the
retrogradation tendency of the flour samples. When cooling paste made
from starch or a starch-based product, low setback suggests increased
resistance to retrogradation (Sanni et al., 2004), while high setback is
linked to syneresis or weeping during freeze/thaw cycles (Adebowale et
al., 2005). The setback values of the cookie samples increased with
increased fermentation duration. It has been reported that setback
viscosity has a major impact on how easily a food product can be
digested when consumed. Higher setback values are correlated with lower
digestibility (Shittu et al ., 2001). The result indicates that
increased fermentation duration decreases the digestibility of the
cookies samples. The peak time of the flour samples increased
significantly (P<0.05) with increase in fermentation duration.
This shows that increased fermentation duration also increases the
cooking time of the acha flour samples. The peak time values are
comparable to those of Adebowale et al. (2008) for instant
yam-breadfruit composite flour and Chinma et al . (2007)
for germinating tiger-nut flour. The peak time increased with an
increase in fermentation duration. One of the properties that show the
minimum temperature needed to cook a sample, the energy costs involved,
and the stability of other components is the pasting temperature (Iweet al ., 2016). The pasting temperature of the flour was observed
to increase with increased level of fermentation duration. A greater
pasting temperature is indicative of a larger ability to bind water, a
higher inclination to gelatinize, and a lesser swelling property in
starch-based flour because of the strong associative forces that exist
between the starch granules (Adebowale et al., 2008). Same
observation was reported by Danbaba et al. (2012) for the pasting
properties of ‘ofada rice’ varieties. Generally, the values obtained for
the pasting properties of flour samples are within those recommended for
commercial flour (Soni et al., 1993; Kemas et al., 2012).
The pasting temperature of the cookie samples differs significantly (P
< 0.05) as the values increased with increase fermentation
duration. This implies that fermentation duration has increased the
cooking temperature for cookies samples since pasting temperature is an
indication of minimum temperature required to cook a sample (Iweet al ., 2016).
Table 2 shows the nutritional quality (proximate and mineral) of native
and fermented acha flour and cookie samples. Significant
differences (p<0.05) were observed in fat, fibre and protein
content of the samples. The moisture content of the acha flour
and cookies sample was observed to decrease with increase in
fermentation duration. The samples’ decreased moisture content with
longer fermentation times might likely be attributed to bacteria using
some moisture for metabolic processes (Igbabul et al. , 2014).
According to the work of Hwabejire et al. (2023), the moisture
content of spontaneously fermented acha flour was observed to
increase within 48 h of fermentation time and decreased by 72 h. The
decrease in moisture content could be due to the breakdown of complex
carbohydrates into simpler sugars, which are then used by microorganisms
during fermentation. The moisture content of the cookie’s samples was
observed to decrease generally after baking when compared to theacha flour samples. Food stability and value are indicated by the
amount of moisture in the food (Nonaka, 1997). The moisture content
values of the cookie samples found in this study fall within the World
Food Programme’s (WFP) maximum moisture content for flour baked products
for effective storage, which is set at 10%.
The protein content of the acha flour samples increased with
increase in fermentation duration. It is possible that the increased
microbial mass during fermentation led to the extensive breakdown of
protein molecules into amino acids and other simple peptides, leading to
why the protein content of the flour samples was reported to increase
(Okechukwu et al. , 2015). The result of protein content observed
corresponds to the observation of Michodjehoun-Mestres et al .,
(2005) on increase in protein content during fermentation of sorghum,
and the work of Igbabul et al. (2022) on mahogany bean flour. The
protein content of the cookies was observed to decrease when compared toacha flour samples after baking and the values varies
significantly (P<0.05). The decrease in protein content
observed in cookies samples could be because of denaturation of protein
due to baking temperature (Ogundele et al. , 2019).
The fat content of the acha flour samples was observed to
decrease with increased fermentation duration. The breakdown of lipids
during fermentation may have led to the low fat level found inacha flour samples (SefaDedeh and Kofi-Agyir, 2002). The reduced
fat content contributes to an extended shelf life for acha flour
by minimizing the likelihood of developing rancid flavors. The fat
content of the cookie samples increased after baking when compared to
the flour samples. The high fat content observed in cookies samples than
the flour samples could be because of baking fat added as an ingredient
during dough preparation and agreed with other authors (Caponio et
al. , 2008). The ash content of the acha flour and cookie samples
was observed to increase initially at fermented period of 24 h, after
which the ash content decreased with increase in the fermentation
duration. Highest value was observed in sample fermented for 24 h, while
the least value was observed in samples fermented for 72 h shows to have
no significant effect on the ash content of the acha flour
samples, though numerical differences was observed. The reduction in ash
content following a 24 h fermentation period may be attributed to the
leaching of soluble mineral elements into the medium or to the general
activities of the fermenting microorganisms, whose enzymatic activity
broke down the food components into forms that could be absorbed
(Igbabul et al. , 2014).
The crude fibre content of the acha flour samples and cookie
sample values decreased with increase in fermentation duration. Highest
value was observed in native acha flour/cookie while the least
value was observed in samples fermented for 72 h. Due to the actions of
microorganisms known for the bioconversion of carbohydrates and
lignocelluloses, the fibrous tissues of the acha seeds may have
softened during fermentation, which could account for the decrease in
crude fiber content of the acha flour samples with longer
fermentation periods (Igbabul et al ., 2014). This result
correlates with that of Forsido et al., (2020) who observed a
decrease in the crude fibre content of cereal-based complementary foods,
as fermentation duration increased. The fibre content of the cookies
varies significantly (P<0.05) and was not appreciably affected
by baking. All the cookies’ fiber content, however, fell below the
FAO/WHO (1994) suggested range of no more than 5 g of dietary fiber per
100 g of dry matter, which is in line with Okpala et al. (2013).
The flour samples’ comparatively high carbohydrate content indicates
that they may be an energy source. The result observed in this study
correlated with those observed by Igbabul et al ., (2014) for
fermented cocoyam flour.
The mineral composition revealed that calcium, sodium and zinc content
of the acha flour and cookie samples varies significantly
(P<0.05). The calcium, sodium and zinc content of the samples
increased initially, but fermentation duration above 24 h cause a
decrease in the mineral content of the samples with increase in
fermentation duration. Highest value for calcium, sodium and zinc was
observed in sample fermented for 24 h while the least value was observed
in sample fermented for 72 h. The decrease in the mineral content of theacha flour samples with increased fermentation duration might be
attributed to leaching of the mineral elements in the fermenting water
during prolong fermentation (Assohoun et al., 2013). However,
there was no significant (P<0.05) difference among the samples
in terms of magnesium, copper and phosphorus. This shows that
fermentation duration has no significant effects on the magnesium,
copper and phosphorus content of the flour samples, although numerical
differences were observed. The magnesium, copper and phosphorus content
increased initially, with fermentation duration above 24 h, the mineral
parameters decreased with increased fermentation duration. Assohounet al. (2013) also reported that possible microbial utilization
and conversion could be responsible for the reduction in the levels of
minerals during prolonged fermentation. Similar results were found in
Samitya et al, (2021) on plant-based foods. The mineral content
of the cookie samples was lower when compared to the flour samples. The
baking process was observed to slight decrease the mineral content of
the cookie samples except for the sodium and copper content which was
observed to increase after the baking process. This implies that both Na
and Cu are very heat resistant minerals, and that baking may have made
them slightly more extractable. This observation can be attributed to
the Maillard reaction that occurred during baking. Delgado-Andrade et
al. (2011) stated that the Maillard reaction can result in
disintegration or creation of compounds that may have an impact on the
availability and solubility of minerals. Despite the trend observed in
the mineral content, the cookies samples still contain appreciable
quantities of mineral elements that can supply the recommended daily
allowance of the mineral elements as stated above. The same results for
extruded acha -soybean blends and fermented popcorn-African locust
bean blends were obtained by Anuonye et al. (2010) and Ijarotimi and
Keshinro (2013). The phenolic and flavonoid compounds of the fermented
flour and cookies samples were shown in Tables 3. The values of phenolic
and flavonoid compounds increased significantly (p<0.05) with
increased fermentation duration. According to research, consuming
phenolic compounds may have a significant impact on health, since
it regulates metabolism, chronic disease, weight and cell proliferation
(Cory et al ., 2018).
The Fourier transmission infrared (FTIR) spectra of fermentedacha flour and cookies are shown in Table 4. Fourier
Transmission-Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a technique for studying
constituent functional groups in an analyte (Adebiyi et al.,2016). The infrared (IR) spectra of the native and fermented achaflours and cookies samples showed similar peaks with variations in
intensity. The FTIR spectra of the flour and baked cookie samples reveal
the changes brought about by the fermentation process. The peaks were
between 3860 - 3650 cm-1 (Figure 1). The high peak
range observed could be because of O–H bond stretching (Sun et
al., 2014). The O–H absorption peak of native acha flour
changed from 3650 cm-1 to 3670, 3830 and 3800
cm-1 for 24 h, 48 h and 72 h fermentation period,
respectively. These changes could be attributed to better lipophilic and
hydrophilic properties of fermented flour samples (Animashaun and
Sobowale, 2024). A similar pattern was also noted in the cookie samples,
where the O-H peak varied for the 24, 48 and 72 h fermentation periods,
respectively, from 3610 cm-1 to 3800, and 3830 to 3860
cm-1. The degree of inter and intra-molecular bond
formation is shown by the fluctuation in the O-H peak (Sun et
al. , 2014). However, the increase in the width of the fermented samples
spectrum in both flour and cookies could be as a result of
characteristic presence of alcohol, produced during fermentation
(Adebiyi et al. , 2016). Tightly bound water in the form of
moisture was the cause of the asymmetric stretching of the C–H band in
the region of 3030 – 2980 cm-1 and the vibration peak
at 1490 – 1470 cm-1 observed in the spectrum (Shiet al., 2012). The carbonyl stretches peaks in the native and
fermented acha flour samples ranged between 1760 and 1770
cm-1. However, the carbonyl peak values observed in
the cookie samples were at higher intensities in the absorption range of
1780 –1770 cm-1. It was observed in Figure 1 that
fermentation process reduces the carbonyl peaks which might be due to a
decrease in the total lipids present in the samples as a result of
fermentation (Correia et al. , 2005; 2008). The additional fat
added during dough preparation may have contributed to the greater
carbonyl peaks seen in the cookie samples. However, baking depolymerized
the fat, resulting in a strong carbonyl peak in every cookie sample. C-O
bond stretching and aliphatic C-N stretching are responsible for the
peaks at 1180 – 1181 cm-1, whereas the amide I band
formed in the 1550–1570 cm-1 range. The intensity of
the bands increased from 1550 cm-1 in the nativeacha flour samples to 1560 and 1560 to 1570
cm-1 in the fermented flour samples after 24, 48 and
72 h, respectively. This indicates alterations in the samples
crystallinity. There may have been a buildup of proteins in the
processed samples as indicated by the fermented samples’ comparatively
greater amide I peak intensities (Correia et al., 2005).
Increases in the amide peak intensities were also visible in the cookie
samples’ spectra. This might be due to the embedded proteins β-sheet
structures (Duodu et al., 2001). This study is comparable to
those published by Animashaun and Sobowale (2024) and Correia et al.
(2008) on the IR spectra for maize and sorghum respectively. Figure 2
shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern for native and fermentedacha flour and its resultant cookie. The variations in the
crystallinity of the flours and cookies affected by processing are
examined using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) patterns. Peak intensity relates
to the number of semi-crystalline structures that are arranged and/or
the variation in electron density between lamellae that are crystalline
and those that are amorphous. (Hamley, 2013), while the sharp peaks
correlated to crystalline region, the diffused peaks amounted to the
amorphous region of the flour and cookies samples (Hamley, 2013; Adebiyiet al., 2016). The diffraction patterns for the native and
fermented acha flour samples shows that all the flour samples
exhibited an A-type XRD pattern (Sun et al., 2014). Nativeacha had a diffraction pattern with major reflections at 2θ of
16.2o, 17.9o, 19.0o, and a diffused peak at 22.8o.
Flour samples fermented for 24, 48 and 72 h had similar peaks with
stronger diffraction intensities with peaks occurring at 2θ of
15.3o, 17.4o,
20.2o and 22.9o,
15.5o, 17.5o,
19.4o and 23.2o, and
15.3o, 18.0o,
19.4o and 23.1o respectively. The
fermented flour blends’ XRD patterns showed variation, which might be
attributed to hydrolysis that occurred during the fermentation process
(Lu et al., 2005). Other cereal flours exhibit the
observed A-type structure (Amadou et al. , 2014; Adebiyi et
al., 2016). The X-ray diffraction plots show that the crystallinity in
cookies samples has little variation when compared to the flour samples.
The diffused V-type peaks seen in all samples are commonly
found in cereals that have been processed (Dharmaraj et al.,2014). This explains why all of the cookie samples showed increased
thermal degradation and the disintegration of the crystalline region of
the flour samples to an amorphous zone. The disruption of crystalline
region is due to heat processing resulting to a partial or complete
reorganization in the crystalline alignment (Sun et al. , 2014).
Similar result was reported by Adebiyi et al., (2016) and
Dharmaraj et al ., (2014) for malted and fermented pearl millet
biscuit and during heat treatments resulted in a decrease in
crystallinity of acha flour and cookies, respectively.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) image for native and fermentedacha flour and corresponding cookies samples is presented in
Figure 3. The internal structure of food samples is commonly evaluated
and characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). SEM has been
utilized by numerous authors to characterize the morphology of starch
granules, explain the endosperm’s structural arrangement, and examine
how distinct treatments affect the granules (Lauro et al., 2000;
McPherson and Jane, 2000; Perera et al., 2001; Naito et al., 2004;
Wilson and Betchel, 2004). The scanning electron microscope (SEM) images
of native and fermented acha flour samples were compared to
observe the morphological changes in them. It was observed according to
flour micrographs that the granules of native acha flour have a
non-uniform, smaller, lenticular or disk-like shape, which is spherical
or ellipsoidal in shape. Regular and smoother structural networks were
observed with shape and structure almost the same to native achaflour in the fermented samples. The granules had smaller pores and
seemed to be round or polygonal in shape. This suggests that
fermentation process had an effect in forming a regular shape in their
corresponding samples. The effect of osmotic stress during the
fermentation process is responsible for the fermented samples’ increased
porosity, disorientation, and less condensation as seen in the SEM
images (van der Weerd et al., 2001). The spherical or ellipsoidal
shape of the granules is like the shape of granules in wheat and corn
starches reported by Horstmann et al. (2017). The scanning
electron microscopy images of the cookie samples give a more varied
arrangement of the granules when compared to the flour samples. The
baking process has been shown to disrupt the granular structure as all
the cookies samples had larger granular sizes with a “honeycomb like”
structure. Similar observations were reported by Dhamaraj et al.(2014) and Adebiyi et al. (2016) for high temperature processed
finger millet and pear millet respectively. The high structural
deformation of the samples may be because heat applied during baking
causes a higher diffusion rate. High-temperature levels, while baking
led to intensified water evaporation and melting of starch granules
(Izli and Polat, 2019). In general, the baking procedure stabilized the
colloidal batter system, enabled the formation of an enveloping crust,
and altered the structural nature of the cookie samples. This situation
may undermine the starch-protein matrix and hence give rise to
structural damage and finally rupture the compact structure of the
samples. The micrograph of native and fermented acha cookies was
in close conformation with the findings of Vega-Gálvez et al .
(2015) for high temperature processed products structure.
The sensory attributes of cookies produced from native and fermentedacha flour is presented in Figure 4. There were significant
(P<0.05) difference among all the samples produced from native
and fermented acha flour. In terms of appearance and crispness,
the mean score shows decrease with an increase in the fermentation
duration. Highest mean score was observed in cookie produced from nativeacha flour, while the least mean score was observed in sample
produced from acha flour fermented for 72 h. Perhaps, decrease in
the mean score for appearance and crispness with increased fermentation
duration could be attributed to dark colouration developed because of
mallard reaction during baking (Hussain et al., 2006) and
increase in mechanical force required require breaking the samples due
to increase in hardness of the samples facilitated by decreased moisture
content of the flour samples, respectively (Guinard and Mazzucchelli,
1996; Luyten et al ., 2004). Also, it was observed that there is
decrease in taste and aroma with increased fermentation duration. The
panelist rated the cookie produced from acha flour fermented for
24 h and sample produced from native acha flour the most
preferred in terms of taste and aroma, respectively. There was
significant difference (P<0.05) among samples in terms of
color. The panelists preference for the colour of the cookies decreased
with increase in fermentation duration. The decrease was as a result of
increase fermentation duration which might be attributed to more rapid
mallard reaction between protein and carbohydrate which produced cookies
with darker colour which may not be appealing to the consumer. Cookies
sample produced from native acha flour was more preferred in
terms of colour. The textural properties of the samples decreased with
increased fermentation duration. This was in line with the report of
Luyten et al . (2004). The panelists overall acceptability for the
cookies samples decreased with increase in fermentation duration.
Generally, cookies produced from native acha flour were rated
most acceptable while fermented acha flour for 72 h was rated the
least (Figure 5). The result obtained for sensory attributes in this
study was similar with the work of Okpala et al. (2013) for
cookies samples made from blends of germinated pigeon pea, fermented
sorghum, and cocoyam flour.
CONCLUSIONS
This study provides valuable insights into the impact of fermentation
duration on the functional, pasting, nutritional composition, phenolic,
flavonoid microstructure, and sensory attribute of acha flour and
cookies. The results indicate that there were significant differences
(p<0.05) in the functional and pasting properties of the flour
and cookies samples. An increase in fermentation duration was observed
to enhance the oil absorption capacity and dispersibility of both flour
and cookies samples. Overall, the values obtained for the pasting and
functional properties of the flour samples fall within the recommended
range for commercial flour. Regarding the proximate composition, as the
fermentation duration increased, the protein and ash content of theacha flour samples increased. The mineral elements such as
calcium, magnesium, sodium, zinc, copper, and phosphorus initially
increased with fermentation up to 24 hours. Cookies with improved
nutritional composition and acceptable sensory attributes could be
produced from both native and acha flour fermented for durations
between 24 and 72 h. This suggests that fermented acha flour
holds promise for various food applications, including preparations,
complementary foods, and gel formulations with reduced syneresis.