Biodiversity
Taxonomic diversity data were collected for 21 above and belowground taxa. Aboveground diversity was measured for vascular plants, lichens, bryophytes, arthropods (divided into herbivores, omnivores, predators, detritivores and pollinators) and vertebrates (granivores and insectivores). Belowground diversity included arthropods (divided in predators and detritivores), bacteria, fungi (divided into decomposers, pathogens, symbionts and others) and protists (divided into bacterivores, eukaryvores, omnivores and parasites). Species diversity for vascular plants, bryophytes and lichens was collected in a 4 m x 4 m subplot located in the middle of each plot. Arthropod species diversity was collected aboveground, using sweep netting along 150-m transects, and belowground, using soil core extractions. Bird species diversity was collected using standardized 5-minute point-counts, recording all individuals seen and heard from the center of the plot. Bat species diversity was measured using standardized acoustic monitoring. Diversity of bacteria, fungi and protists was assessed as the number of operational taxonomic units (OTU), based on metabarcoding approaches using DNA extracted from plants and soil. We defined grassland taxonomic diversity for each group as the number of species/OTUs identified. Detailed information about the collection of diversity data can be found in Supplementary Table S2.