Effects of Different Variables on Habitat Selection and Temporal
Activities of Wild Animals; The Case of Central Anatolia
Emir Özay Eskişehir Metropolitan Municipality, Art Vocational Training
Courses, 26100 Eskişehir
Nuri Kaan Özkazanç University of Bartin, Faculty of Forestry, Departmet
of Foret Engineer 74100 Bartin
Correspondence: Nuri Kaan Özkazanç University of Bartin,
Faculty of Forestry, Departmet of Foret Engineer 74100 Bartin.nozkazanc@bartin.edu.tr
ABSTRACT In this study, which was carried out between
2015-2019, were taken 3730 photographs and video recordings with the
number of 6380 camera trap days at 142 different points with the camera
traps. At the end of the study, 13 different large mammal wild animal
species were identified. In the study area, wild boar (Sus
scrofa ) 845, hare (Lepus europaeus ) 634, red fox (Vulpes
vulpes ) 565, gray wolf (Canis lupus ) 549, golden jackal
(Canis aureus ) 322, red deer (Cervus elaphus ) 224, stone
marten (Martes foina ) 174, European badger
(Meles meles ) 89, brown bear (Ursus arctos ) 86, Eurasian
otter (Lutra lutra ) 84, jungle cat (Felis chaus ) 69,
wildcat (Felis silvestris ) 52 and Eurasian lynx (Lynx
lynx ) 28 times have been observed. The distribution of the identified
species according to altitude and stand type, and their activities
according to months and hours of the day were evaluated. It has been
determined that the determined species prefer mixed and degraded stand
types, they are more intense between 1200-1400 meters, daily activities
are more frequent at night and they are more active in the spring and
autumn seasons.
KEYWORDS: activities, habitat, mammal, wild animal, variable,
Central Anatolia
Among wild animals, which are one of the most basic components of the
ecosystem, mammals are a very important group. However, many mammalian
wild animal species continue to exist in limited numbers and the region
due to local or global scale ecosystem degradation. Mammals are
distributed in 108 different geographical regions in the world (Morrisonet. al ., 2007). One of these regions, the Palearctic region, is
divided into 16 sub-regions and three of these 16 sub-regions are
located in Anatolia (Turkish Caucasus region, Muş-Şırnak-Van region, and
Western Black Sea region). For this reason, the biodiversity of the
Anatolian geography is very rich.
Many of the large mammalian wild animals tend to decline and disappear
on a global scale. Especially in Europe, this decrease has accelerated
due to the increase in the use of natural resources. It is thought that
10-25% of the habitats of these species will disappear by 2050 in
Europe alone (Rondinini and Visconti 2015).
Mammals with 3 subclasses, 29 orders, 153 families, 1229 genera, and
6495 species in the world (Burgin et al. 2018) are represented by 171
species, 141 of which are documented in Turkey (Özkazanç, 2012).
Habitat selection for wild animals is a complex and hierarchical
process. This selection varies between individuals, mostly on spatial
and temporal scales. Although the habitat preferences of many mammal
species change according to the seasons, they also vary depending on
altitude, land structure, and vegetation. An important factor affecting
the habitat selection of the species is the pressure of the predators in
that area (Bose et. al. 2018).
Differences in habitat selection are also observed among different
individuals of the same species. These differences are under the
influence of some factors such as spatial distribution of individuals,
resource use, and dominance-recession. While many wild animals can
tolerate some factors that influence the selection of large habitats,
such as living areas, smaller-scale areas such as nesting sites are more
affected by less important factors (Dussault et. al. 2005).
Suitable habitat for a species is an important factor affecting the
distribution and abundance of that species. Because the habitats
suitable for the species affect the continuity of the population of that
species. The main behavioral and welfare factors of wildlife depend on
the amount of food, water, shelter, and site security provided by the
habitat used. However, many wildlife habitats are being destroyed by
human population growth, increasing food demand, expansion of human
settlements, anthropogenic developments, and increases in natural
resource use. As a result, wild animal populations are decreasing due to
the deterioration of natural habitats. Therefore, a clear understanding
of the wildlife-habitat relationship is essential for an effective
protected area management (Chabwela et. al. 2017).
Habitat selection in wild animals starts with parental behavior in the
early stages of life and is determined by the struggle for survival in
the later period. In addition, some habitat selection tactics may be
repeatable or changeable throughout the life stages of the species. For
example, a species’ response to habitat disturbances is highly
reproducible and can variable throughout the year (Larue et. all. 2018).
In recent studies, it is seen that the determination of changes in the
behavior of wild animals against the changing environment is taken into
account on an individual scale. These studies have measured the temporal
stability of individual differences in habitat selection patterns or
correlated individual differences in habitat selection and land use
patterns with individual differences in life-stage characteristics.
However, generally in many studies, population-based habitat selection
analyzes do not take into account individual variability.
Wild animals tend to minimize the detrimental effects of major limiting
factors within their habitats as large as possible. For this purpose,
they prefer to choose habitats were limiting factors are less in large
areas. The beginning of these factors is natural enemies, predators,
food, and climatic conditions (Dussault et. al. 2005). Regarding this
issue, Senft et al. (1987) hypothesize that habitat selection decisions
at large scales occur less frequently, but that habitat selection
decisions at small scales have more of an impact on the suitability of
the site. In addition, Rettie and Messier (2000) suggested that the
habitat selection pattern of animals at spatial scales should reflect a
hierarchy of factors that potentially limit individual fitness.
In short, the individual suitability of the species allows it to avoid
important limiting factors in large-scale habitat selections of wild
animals (ie, throughout the landscape), while less important factors are
more impact on selec of small-scale habitats such as nesting areas.
The forests are the most important wildlife habitats. Different forest
types, their sub-vegetations, and many river habitats are favored by
wild animals and seasonally affect wildlife mobility. Therefore, the
protection of these ecosystem reserves is very important for the
protection of wildlife (Salvador et al. 2011). For example, closed
forests and the structure of the lower vegetation directly or indirectly
affect the habitat selection of a species due to changes in its habitat
and prey-food preference. This is particularly more effective in the
food habitat selection of predatory species (Tomita and Hiura 2021). In
general, closed forest stands are preferred more by a lot of wild
mammals, while open stands are less preferred (Hodorff et. al. 1988).
Balakrishnan and Easa (1986) emphasize that twenty-four species found in
the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary in India prefer certain forests and
these preferences are between deciduous and evergreen forests. In a
different study, Tsujio and Yumoto (2014) determined that relatively
undisturbed broadleaf forest areas in central Japan have the richest
mammalian fauna. Again in this study, it has been reported that the
mammal fauna decreases with the increase in altitude in mixed forests,
coniferous forests with well-developed vegetation are more suitable for
some medium-sized mammals, and forests with fruit trees are more
preferred.
Intra-species and inter-species competition of wild animals affect
habitat choices, and the characteristics of the habitat also affect
competition among wild animals in that habitat. For example, changes in
water resources or vegetation in the habitat can affect many activities
of species such as feeding, sheltering, reproduction and roaming.
Constriction in habitats can lead to increased competition and even
conflict among species (Lamprey, 1963).
The destruction of habitats used by wild animals by humans is a major
threat to wildlife. Habitat selection, which is mainly a result of
competition and predation, also allows species to live together.
Although terrestrial mammals tend to use different habitats, information
on species habitat selection allows for greater efforts to focus on
habitats associated with focal species. This too demonstrates the
importance of environmental heterogeneity in enabling species to
coexist.
The changes that will occur in the habitats of the species may cause
their spread to regions with better ecological conditions (forced
migration) or extinction in that region, rather than adapting to new
conditions (Raia et al. 2011). For example, in a study that stated that
the forest cover and the density of the lower vegetation, directly and
indirectly, affect the feeding habitat selection of grizzly bears it was
determined that the removal of dwarf bamboo which is an important
sub-vegetation cover of the region expands the feeding areas of this
species (Tomita and Hiura 2021). Again, in a different study, it was
determined that wolves mostly prefer high-quality habitats away from
humans with high hunting success (Lesmerises et. al. 2012).
An important factor affecting the habitat use and activities of wild
animals is time and seasons. For example, seasonal changes in
temperature and precipitation in the elephant migration corridors in
Kenya significantly affect the availability of water resources and the
distribution of elephants in this area (Williams et. al. 2018).
Similarly, deer avoid areas with low snowfall in winter avoiding wolves,
which are important predators, and prefer surrounded by snow habitats
where they can find plenty of food for nesting. Again, many deer species
prefer areas that provide protection from snow along the edges of stands
where they can find plenty of food during the winter months. On the
other hand, female deer with young tend to prefer habitats that provide
protection from predators rather than food preference (Dussault et. al.
2005).
In a different study, the habitat preferences and activity patterns of
the caracal were investigated and it was emphasized that the species
prefers red pine forests up to 450 meters, it is more common in
sandstone and volcanic sediment areas, and areas with limestone are not
preferred. In the same study, it is reported that although the species
is active throughout the day, it reaches the highest level between 24.00
and 06.00 when the activity intensifies in the evening (Ünal et. al.
2019).
In studies on the distribution of wild mammals in different regions of
Turkey; Hızal (2008), 32 in Kapıdağ Peninsula, Mengüllüoğlu (2010), 13
in Beypazarı, Çam ve Ölmez (2015) 42 in Sinop, Nabioğlu ve Keten (2016),
10 in Bolu Yedigöller National Park, Karataş (2016), 66 in Hatay,
Gözütok (2017), 23 in Bursa, Özkazanç ve ark., (2017), 13 in Bartın,
İlemin (2020) 37 in Muğla, Yorulmaz ve Arslan (2020), 41 in Yozgat,
Selçuk ve Kefelioğlu (2020), 47 in Samsun, 32 in Amasya, 49 in Tokat and
34 in Eskişehir identified different mammalian wild animals.
However, most of these studies are limited to fauna detection. Habitat
preferences of wild animals and the factors affecting their behavior and
distribution have not been examined. Only Özkazanç et al. (2017) stated
that hours, months and seasons, height, and stand type are effective on
habitat preference, distribution, and daily activities of wild animals.
In this study, it was concluded that wild animals are more active at
night, their activities decrease in winter, and they are more active in
spring, summer and autumn. In addition, it was found that the species in
the area are denser between 1300-1500 meters altitude, and mixed forest
areas are more preferred. Özkazanç (2019) reported that wild animals
prefer mixed stands over pure stands, fir and beech mixed stands over
other mixed stands, and healthy and old stands more than degraded
stands.
In this context, this study was carried out in order to identify large
mammal wild animals and to determine their habitat preferences, temporal
activities, populations, and ecological demands in Eskişehir which is a
very important transition point for wild animals between Central
Anatolia, and Marmara, and Aegean geographical regions.