Lynch Syndrome and Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer in Pediatric Patients
Claudia Phen M.D.1, Donovan Berens
M.D.2, Kelsey Moriarty M.S.3,
Kenneth Ng D.O.4, Anita L. Sengupta
M.D.5, Isabel Rojas M.D.1
1Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Department of
Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas,
Texas, USA2Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas
Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA3Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of
Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA4Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and
Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, The Johns Hopkins University School
of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA5Department of Pathology, University of Texas
Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas,
USA
Corresponding author: Isabel Rojas, M.D.
email:
Isabel.Rojas@UTSouthwestern.edu
Mailing address: 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas TX 75390. Department of
Pediatrics, Gastroenterology
Phone number: 214-456-8000
Keywords/Abbreviations:
Pediatric polyps, Polyposis syndromes, Colorectal cancer (CRC), Mismatch
repair (MMR), Lynch Syndrome (LS)
Acknowledgements:
none
Financial support and sponsorship:
none
Conflict of Interest: none
The
study was determined to be exempt from review by the University of Texas
Southwestern Human Research Protection Program
(HRPP).AbstractLynch syndrome
(LS) is the most common hereditary colon cancer syndrome caused by
germline mutations in mismatch repair (MMR) genes. In this series, we
outline 3 pediatric
patients who presented with vague symptoms due to colorectal cancer who
were eventually
diagnosed with Lynch syndrome with multiple gene mutations. The
diagnosis of
colorectal cancer in pediatrics warrants timely recognition, inclusion
of Lynch syndrome in the
differential diagnosis, multi-gene testing, and genetic counseling for
the patient and family.IntroductionLynch syndrome, formerly known as
hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), is the
most common hereditary colon cancer syndrome.1 It has
autosomal dominant inheritance due to
presence of a pathogenic variant in one of the MMR genes: MLH1 ,MSH2 , MSH6 , PMS2, or
EPCAM .2 The clinical phenotype and cancer risk
depends on which MMR gene is involved,
which in turn has implications on surveillance
strategies.3 The MMR genes encode for proteins
responsible in the regulation of DNA repair in cells; therefore,
mutations in MMR genes result in
higher rates of single nucleotide changes and microsatellite
instability.1 In LS, the adenoma to
carcinoma sequence is accelerated with colorectal cancer (CRC) occurring
within 2 to 3 years
as opposed to 8 to 10 years.2 Family history can be
helpful to detect this syndrome before the
development of CRC, however sporadic cases have been reported due tode novo mutations
hence high clinical suspicion is
needed.4Lynch syndrome carries the
burden of malignancy within and outside of the gastrointestinal (GI)
tract. LS has a 46 to 74% lifetime risk for CRC with average age of
onset of 44 years. 5-7 Risk
modifiers
remain largely unknown. The clinical presentation can be highly variable
and
heterogeneous with different ages of onset and
cancer penetrance. Cases of pediatric onset
CRC in
adolescence have been reported in the literature due to inherited orde novomutations.8,9Polyposis and CRC in the pediatric population present with nonspecific
symptoms
such as weight loss and unexplained anemia
which may result in delayed diagnosis and
ominous
outcome. Of the hereditary cancer predisposition syndromes, Lynch
syndrome is
particularly challenging as patients can
present with colorectal cancer in the absence of a
large
colonic polyp burden and bloody stools
.
Additional barriers to diagnosis include low index of
suspicion for CRC in the pediatric
population and lack
of knowledge of hereditary cancer predisposition syndromes, which lead
to
delayed referral and evaluation. Furthermore,
diagnosis of LS involves a complex diagnostic
work-up
which includes a thorough family history, immunohistochemical testing,
and genetic
analysis which may not be available at all
centers.MethodsFollowing IRB exemption, the electronic medical record at the University
of Texas
Southwestern/Children’s Health was utilized to obtain clinical
information about our 2 patients.
The third case was ascertained from a recently published case report
following query of the
pediatric polyposis special interest group within our North American
Society of Pediatric
Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition
(NASPGHAN).
De-identified patient information including
age at presentation, clinical presentation, genetic
mutations, and outcomes were collected and tabulated (Figure 1).
Diagnoses of Lynch
syndrome was confirmed with presence of a monoallelic germline variant
in an MMR gene
following genetic testing without evidence of constitutional mismatch
repair deficiency
(CMMRD), a distinct childhood cancer predisposition syndrome due to
biallelic germline
mutations and high propensity toward formation of colon cancer, brain
tumors, and leukemia.Case ReviewsWe report a series of three pediatric patients (median age 15 years) who
presented first with
variable symptoms and were later found to have colorectal cancer. In all
3 cases, the diagnosis
of Lynch syndrome was ascertained after cancer diagnosis. Endoscopic
tumor biopsies were
evaluated for immunohistochemical (IHC) staining patterns for mismatch
repair proteins and
demonstrated loss of expression. Subsequently, genetic testing revealed
mutations in an MMR
gene and additional gene variants. Patient
115-year-old male with history of a benign testicular
tumor (excised at eight months of life)
presented to the emergency department (ED) for rectal prolapse. The
patient had been straining
to defecate and passed a small stool with large amount of blood. Six
months prior to
presentation, he had also witnessed blood in his stool. In the ED,
sucrose was applied to the
rectal mass which was partially reduced. Patient was taken for
sigmoidoscopy, which revealed a
large, pedunculated polypoid mass 10 centimeters from the anal verge,
which was excised
using a hot snare (Figure 1A). Microscopic evaluation of the specimen
revealed a microinvasive,
moderately differentiated adenocarcinoma arising within a tubulovillous
adenoma.
Immunohistochemical staining was notable for a loss of MSH2 and MSH6
protein expression in
carcinoma cell nuclei (Figure 1B). Colorectal cancer gene panel revealed
heterozygous,
pathogenic germline mutation in the MSH2 gene confirming a
diagnosis of Lynch syndrome.
Notably, he also was a carrier of APC risk allele. The patient’s
brother and father subsequently
underwent testing which revealed MSH2 gene mutation in both and
father was also a carrier of
the APC risk allele
although neither had personal history of cancer. There was no family
history
of GI disorders or cancer aside from skin
cancer in paternal grandmother and breast cancer
in
maternal great-aunt.
Patient 215-year-old male presented to the ED for
difficulty walking. The patient had fatigue, anorexia,
and a 22-pound weight loss over a five-month period. Laboratory
evaluation was notable for a
hemoglobin of 1.9 g/dL, a platelet count of 59
thousand/mm3, and an elevated erythrocyte
sedimentation rate of 86 mm/hour. The patient denied seeing blood in his
stool, but a digital
rectal examination revealed maroon-colored stool. Family history was
significant for multiple
family members on the maternal side with diagnoses of colon, breast, and
ovarian cancers.
Colonoscopy revealed two pedunculated polyps in the cecum and hepatic
flexure with near
occlusion of the lumen which were partially removed (Figure 2).
Histopathology revealed
moderately differentiated adenocarcinoma invading through the submucosa
with IHC with loss
of MLH1 and PMS2 expression. Colorectal cancer gene panel revealed
heterozygous,
pathogenic germline mutation in the MLH1 and MSH3 genes.
Maternal genetic evaluation was
also notable for MLH1 gene mutation.
Patient 315-year-old male presented to gastroenterology (GI) clinic for vomiting
and 15-pound
unintentional weight loss over a 3-month period.10Initial evaluation included a normal upper GI
study with a delayed gastric emptying scan so a promotility agent was
started. At follow-up,
patient continued to lose weight and was now complaining of lower
abdominal pain, so an
ultrasound was obtained, which revealed a mass in the left lower
quadrant. Abdominal
computed tomography (CT) scan showed an 8-cm mass in the descending
colon. The patient
underwent a colonoscopy which identified a nearly obstructing descending
colonic mass and
histopathology noted a poorly differentiated adenocarcinoma with
medullary features and
extensive necrosis. Genetic testing revealed pathogenic mutations inMLH1 , APC , and SMAD4 .
There was no family history of GI disorders or cancer.