Approach Applications and benefits Limitations References
Mechanical and chemical bioremediation Scalping sites in conjunction with revegetation, chemical dispersers and microbial inoculants for pollutants, typically funded by polluters Not feasible beyond site scale nor remote areas with no machinery access Vrba et al. 2003; Brown et al. 2017
Replicate historic disturbance regime Fire and grazing in terrestrial systems, flooding for freshwater systems; range of historic variation often the goal, integrates well with First Nations knowledge systems Limited applicability in peri-urban and multifunctional landscapes, historic data often unavailable Pedroli et al. 2002; Greenberg & Collins 2015
Revegetation The default approach for many terrestrial and subtidal biomes, useful way to involve wide range of stakeholder groups, especially beneficial when disturbance and visitation are restricted Only some plant groups can be propagated and transplanted, long lead time can be challenging for maintaining engagement Linhart 1995; Ellison 2000
Translocation and facilitated dispersal Routine in freshwater systems, terrestrial applications prioritize ecosystem engineers, equally applicable to widespread species to keep them common Costly, risky in terms of both low success and tenuous social license (intervention often framed as ‘unnatural’) Seddon 2010; Watson & Watson 2015
Augmenting natural substrates Re-snagging and re-meandering rivers, adding coarse woody debris and outcrops to woodlands, returning oyster shells to temperate reefs; topsoil replacement for mine sites, cost effective and well suited to experimental comparisons Not all structures can be augmented, logistically complex to upscale, environmental alterations may displace early successional taxa Erskine & Webb 2003; Wondendorp & Keenan 2005
Adding engineered structures Concrete reefs, nest boxes, simulated burrows; all increase heterogeneity of surfaces and boost microclimatic diversity Costly at scale, can be subverted for commercial gain (e.g., fish attracting devices), not addressing shortage of resources over longer time-scales Jaap 2000; Cowan et al. 2021
Eradicating invasive species Reducing populations of invasive species down to a level where displaced native taxa can re-establish, useful way to engage with local communities Costly and ongoing, biological control requires significant investment and expertise Veitch & Clout 2002; Glen et al. 2013