References
Adams, B. J., Schnitzer, S. A., and Yanoviak, S. P. 2017. Trees as
islands: canopy ant species richness increases with the size of
liana-free trees in a Neotropical forest. Ecography 40 :
1067–1075.
Adams, B. J., Schnitzer, S. A., and Yanoviak, S. P. 2019. Connectivity
explains local ant community structure in a Neotropical forest canopy: a
large‐scale experimental approach. Ecology 100 : e02673.
Antoniazzi, R., Viana-Junior, A. B., Pelayo-Martínez, J., Ortiz-Lozada,
L., Neves, F. S., Leponce, M., and Dáttilo, W. 2021. Distance–decay
patterns differ between canopy and ground ant assemblages in a tropical
rainforest. J. Trop. Ecol. 1-9.
Ashton, L. A., Nakamura, A., Basset, Y., Burwell, C. J., Cao, M.,
Eastwood, R., … Kitching, R. L. 2016. Vertical stratification of
moths across elevation and latitude. Journal of Biogeogr.43: 59–69.
Baselga, A. 2010. Partitioning the turnover and nestedness components of
beta diversity. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 19 : 134–143.
Baselga, A., and Orme, C. D. L. 2012. betapart: an R package for the
study of beta diversity. Methods ecol evol. 3 : 808-812.
Basham, E. W., Seidl, C. M., Andriamahohatra, L. R., Oliveira, B. F.,
and Scheffers, B. R. 2018. Distance–decay differs among vertical strata
in a tropical rainforest. J. Anim. Ecol 88 : 114-124
Basset, Y., Cizek, L., Cuénoud, P., Didham, R. K., Guilhaumon, F.,
Missa, O., … Leponce, M. 2012. Arthropod diversity in a tropical
forest. Science . 338: 1481-1484.
Bélisle, M. 2005. Measuring landscape connectivity: The challenge of
behavioral landscape ecology. Ecology 88: 1988–1995.
Blanchet, F. G., Legendre, P., and Borcard, D. 2008. Forward selection
of explanatory variables. Ecology 89 : 2623-2632.
Borowiec, M. L. 2016. Generic revision of the ant subfamily dorylinae
(hymenoptera, formicidae). ZooKeys 608 : 1
Brown, N. 1993. The implications of climate and gap microclimate for
seedling growth conditions in a Bornean lowland rain forest. J
Trop. Ecol. 153-168.
Bütikofer, L., Anderson, K., Bebber, D. P., Bennie, J. J., Early, R. I.,
and Maclean, I. M. D. 2020. The problem of scale in predicting
biological responses to climate. Glob. Chang. Biol.26 : 6657-6666.
Chesters, D., Beckschäfer, P., Orr, M. C., Adamowicz, S. J., Chun, K.
P., and Zhu, C. D. 2019. Climatic and vegetational drivers of insect
beta diversity at the continental scale. Ecol. Evol. 9 :
13764-13775.
Cottenie, K. 2005. Integrating environmental and spatial processes in
ecological community dynamics. Ecol Lett. 8 : 1175–1182.
Daily, G. C., and Ehrlich, P. R. 1995. Preservation of biodiversity in
small rainforest patches: rapid evaluations using butterfly
trapping. Biodivers. Conserv . 4 : 35-55
Dáttilo, W., Fagundes, R., Gurka, C. A., Silva, M. S., Vieira, M. C.,
Izzo, T. J., … and Rico-Gray, V. 2014. Individual-based ant-plant
networks: diurnal-nocturnal structure and species-area
relationship. PLoS One. 9 : e99838.
Davies, A. B., and Asner, G. P. 2014. Advances in animal ecology from
3D-LiDAR ecosystem mapping. Trends Ecol. Evol.29 : 681–691.
Davis, K. T., Dobrowski, S. Z., Holden, Z. A., Higuera, P. E., and
Abatzoglou, J. T. 2019. Microclimatic buffering in forests of the
future: the role of local water balance. Ecography , 42 :
1–11.
Davidson, D. W. 1997. The role of resource imbalances in the
evolutionary ecology of tropical arboreal ants. Biol. J. Linn.
Soc. 61 : 153-181.
Davidson, D. W., Lessard, J. P., Bernau, C. R., and Cook, S. C. 2007.
The tropical ant mosaic in a primary Bornean rain
forest. Biotropica 39 : 468-475.
De Frenne, P., Zellweger, F., Rodríguez-Sánchez, F., Scheffers, B. R.,
Hylander, K., Luoto, M., … Lenoir, J. 2019. Global buffering of
temperatures under forest canopies. Nature Ecol Evol. 3 :
744–749.
Dejean, A., Compin, A., Delabie, J. H., Azemar, F., Corbara, B., and
Leponce, M. 2019. Biotic and abiotic determinants of the formation of
ant mosaics in primary Neotropical rainforests. Ecol.
Entomol , 44 : 560-570.
Dial, R., Bloodworth, B., Lee, A., Boyne, P. and Heys, J., 2004a. The
distribution of free space and its relation to canopy composition at six
forest sites. Forest Science 50 : 312-325.
Dial, R. J., Sillett, S. C., Antoine, M. E., and Spickler, J. C. 2004b.
Methods for horizontal movement through forest canopies. Selbyana25:151-163.
Dial, R. J., Ellwood, M. D. F., Turner, E. C., and Foster, W. A. 2006.
Arthropod Abundance, Canopy Structure, and Microclimate in a Bornean
Lowland Tropical Rain Forest. Biotropica. 38 : 643–652.
Dial, R. J., Nadkarni, N. M., and Jewell III, C. D. 2011. Canopy
structure in a 650-year Douglas-fir chronosequence in western
Washington: Distribution of canopy elements and open space. Forest
Science 57 : 309-319.
Dorow, W.H., and Kohout, RJ. 1995. A review of the subgenus Hemioptica
Roger of the genus Polyrhachis Fr. Smith with description of a
new species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Formicinae). Zoologische
Mededelingen . 69 : 93-104.
Ehrlich, P. R., and Wilson, E. O. 1991. Biodiversity studies: Science
and policy. Science , 253 : 758–762.
Fayle, T. M., Turner, E. C., Snaddon, J. L., Chey, V. K., Chung, A. Y.
C., Eggleton, P., and Foster, W. A. 2010. Oil palm expansion into rain
forest greatly reduces ant biodiversity in canopy, epiphytes and
leaf-litter. Basic Appl Ecol. 11 : 337-345.
Fayle, T. M., Yusah, K. M., and Hashimoto, Y. 2014. Key to the ant
genera of Borneo in English and Malay. http://www. tomfayle. com/Ant%
20key. htm.
Fetcher, N., Oberbauer, S. F., and Strain, B. R. 1985. Vegetation
effects on microclimate in lowland tropical forest in Costa Rica.Int. J. Biometeorol . 29 : 145–155.
Fitzherbert, E. B., Struebig, M. J., Morel, A., Danielsen, F., Brühl, C.
A., Donald, P. F., and Phalan, B. 2008. How will oil palm expansion
affect biodiversity? Trends Ecol. Evol. 23 : 538-545
Floren, A., Wetzel, W., and Staab, M. 2014. The contribution of canopy
species to overall ant diversity (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in temperate
and tropical ecosystems. Myrmecol. News 19 : 65-74.
Goslee, S. C., and Urban, D. L. 2007. The ecodist package for
dissimilarity-based analysis of ecological data. J. Stat. Softw .
22:
1-19.
Hardwick, S. R., Toumi, R., Pfeifer, M., Turner, E. C., Nilus, R., and
Ewers, R. M. 2015. The relationship between leaf area index and
microclimate in tropical forest and oil palm plantation: Forest
disturbance drives changes in microclimate. Agric For
Meteorol . 201 : 187-195.
Huang, G., and Catterall, C. P. 2021. Effects of habitat transitions on
rainforest bird communities across an anthropogenic landscape mosaic.Biotropica . 53 : 130-141.
Hung AC. 1970 A revision of ants of the subgenus Polyrhachis Fr. Smith
(Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Formicinae). Orient. Insects.4 :1-36.
Jorda, G., Marbà, N., Bennett, S., Santana-Garcon, J., Agusti, S., and
Duarte, C. M. 2020. Ocean warming compresses the three-dimensional
habitat of marine life. Nature Ecol. Evol. 4 : 109–114.
Kaspari, M. 1993. Body size and microclimate use in Neotropical
granivorous ants. Oecologia . 96 : 500-507.
Kaspari, M., Clay, N. A., Lucas, J., Yanoviak, S. P., and Kay, A. 2015.
Thermal adaptation generates a diversity of thermal limits in a
rainforest ant community. Global Change Biol. 21 :
1092–1102.
Kaspari, M., and Yanoviak, S. P. 2001. Bait Use in Tropical Litter and
Canopy Ants—Evidence of Differences in Nutrient Limitation1.Biotropica . 33 : 207-211.
Klimes, P. 2017. Diversity and specificity of ant-plant interactions in
canopy communities: insights from primary and secondary tropical forests
in New Guinea. Ant-Plant Interactions–Impacts of Humans on
Terrestrial Ecosystems , 26-51.
Kitching, R. L., Ashton, L. A., Nakamura, A., Whitaker, T., and Khen, C.
V. 2013. Distance-driven species turnover in Bornean rainforests:
Homogeneity and heterogeneity in primary and post-logging forests.Ecography . 36 : 675-682.
Kohout, R.J. 2006a. Review of Polyrhachis (Cyrtomyrma) Forel
(Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Formicinae) of Australia, Borneo, New Guinea
and the Solomon Islands with descriptions of new species.Memoirs-Queensland Museum , 52: 87.
Kohout R.J. 2006b. A review of the Polyrhachiscryptoceroides species-group with description of a new species
from Thailand (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Myrmecologische
Nachrichten .;8:145-50.
Klimes, P., Idigel, C., Rimandai, M., Fayle, T. M., Janda, M., Weiblen,
G. D., and Novotny, V. 2012. Why are there more arboreal ant species in
primary than in secondary tropical forests? J. Anim. Ecol.81 : 1103–1112.
Law, S. J., Bishop, T. R., Eggleton, P., Griffiths, H., Ashton, L., and
Parr, C. 2020. Darker ants dominate the canopy: Testing macroecological
hypotheses for patterns in colour along a microclimatic gradient.J. Anim. Ecol. 89: 347–359.
Lessard, J. P., Dunn, R. R., and Sanders, N. J. 2009.
Temperature-mediated coexistence in temperate forest ant communities.Insectes Soc. 56 : 149-156.
Liu, C., Guénard, B., Blanchard, B., Peng, Y.-Q., and Economo, E. P.
2016. Reorganization of taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic ant
biodiversity after conversion to rubber plantation. Ecol. Monogr .86 : 215–227.
MacArthur, R. H., and Horn, H. S. 1969. Foliage profile by vertical
measurements. Ecology . 50 : 802-804.
Majer, J. D. 1993. Comparison of the arboreal ant mosaic in Ghana,
Brazil, Papua New Guinea and Australia-its structure and influence on
arthropod diversity. Hymenoptera and Biodiversity. 115-141.
Malhi, Y., Doughty, C., and Galbraith, D. 2011. The allocation of
ecosystem net primary productivity in tropical forests. Philos.
Trans. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci. , 366 : 3225-3245.
Matthiessen, B., Mielke, E., and Sommer, U. 2010. Dispersal decreases
diversity in heterogeneous metacommunities by enhancing regional
competition. Ecology. 91 : 2022-2033.
Nakamura, A., Kitching, R. L., Cao, M., Creedy, T. J., Fayle, T. M.,
Freiberg, M., … Ashton, L. A. 2017. Forests and Their Canopies:
Achievements and Horizons in Canopy Science. Trends Ecol.
Evol. 32 : 438–451.
Nekola, J. C., and McGill, B. J. 2014. Scale dependency in the
functional form of the distance decay relationship. Ecography .37 : 309–320.
Novotny, V., Miller, S. E., Hulcr, J., Drew, R. A. I., Basset, Y.,
Janda, M., … Weiblen, G. D. 2007. Low beta diversity of
herbivorous insects in tropical forests. Nature 448 :
692–695.
Oliveira, B. F., and Scheffers, B. R. 2019) Vertical stratification
influences global patterns of biodiversity. Ecography .42 : 249-249.
Oksanen, J., Blanchet, F. G., Kindt, R., Legendre, P., Minchin, P. R.,
O’hara, R. B., … and Wagner, H. 2013. Community ecology package.R package version , 2-0.
Parker, G. G. 1995. Structure and microclimate of forest canopies. In
M.D. Lowman, and N. M. Nadkarni (Eds.), Forest canopies (pp.
73–106). SanDiego, CA: Academic Press Inc.
Parr, C. L., and Gibb, H. 2010. Competition and the role of dominant
ants. Ant ecology , 77-96.
Perfecto, I., and Vandermeer, J. 1996. Microclimatic changes and the
indirect loss of ant diversity in a tropical
agroecosystem. Oecologia , 108 : 577-582.
Pfeiffer, M., and Linsenmair, K. E. 2001. Territoriality in the
Malaysian giant ant Camponotus gigas(Hymenoptera/Formicidae). J. Ethol. 19 : 75-85.
Pincebourde, S., and Suppo, C. 2016. The vulnerability of tropical
ectotherms to warming is modulated by the microclimatic heterogeneity.Integr. Comp. Biol. 56 : 85–97.
Plowman, N. S., Mottl, O., Novotny, V., Idigel, C., Philip, F. J.,
Rimandai, M., and Klimes, P. 2019. Nest microhabitats and tree size
mediate shifts in ant community structure across elevation in tropical
rainforest canopies. Ecography . 43: 431-442.
Powell, S., Costa, A. N., Lopes, C. T., and Vasconcelos, H. L. 2011.
Canopy connectivity and the availability of diverse nesting resources
affect species coexistence in arboreal ants. J. Anim. Ecol.80 : 352-360
Qian, H., and Ricklefs, R. E. 2007. A latitudinal gradient in
large-scale beta diversity for vascular plants in North America.Ecol Lett. 10: 737–744
R core team. 2013. R: A language and environment for statistical
computing.
Ramette, A., and Tiedje, J. M. 2007. Multiscale responses of microbial
life to spatial distance and environmental heterogeneity in a patchy
ecosystem. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 :2761–2766.
Reaka-Kudla, M.L. 1997. The Global Biodiversity of Coral Reefs: A
Comparison with Rain Forests. Biodiversity II: Understanding and
Protecting Our Biological Resources . Joseph Henry Press.
Ribas, C. R., and Schoereder, J. H. 2007. Ant communities, environmental
characteristics and their implications for conservation in the Brazilian
Pantanal. Biodivers. Conserv . 16 : 1511-1520
Ribeiro, S., Espirito Santo, N., Delabie, J., and Majer, J. 2013.
Competition, resources and the ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) mosaic: a
comparison of upper and lower canopy. Mycological Progress , 18,
113-120.
Roisin, Y., Dejean, A., Corbara, B., Orivel, J., Samaniego, M., and
Leponce, M. 2006. Vertical stratification of the termite assemblage in a
neotropical rainforest. Oecologia , 149 : 301–311.
Sanders, N. J., Crutsinger, G. M., Dunn, R. R., Majer, J. D., and
Delabie, J. H. 2007. An ant mosaic revisited: Dominant ant species
disassemble arboreal ant communities but co‐occur
randomly. Biotropica , 39 : 422-427.
Scheffers, B. R., Edwards, D. P., Macdonald, S. L., Senior, R. A.,
Andriamahohatra, L. R., Roslan, N., … Williams, S. E. 2017.
Extreme thermal heterogeneity in structurally complex tropical rain
forests. Biotropica 49 : 35–44.
Scheffers, B. R., Phillips, B. L., Laurance, W. F., Sodhi, N. S.,
Diesmos, A., and Williams, S. E. 2013. Increasing arboreality with
altitude: A novel biogeographic dimension.Proc. Royal Soc. B ,1770: 20131581.
Schödl, S. 1998. Taxonomic revision of Oriental Meranoplus F. Smith,
1853 (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Myrmicinae). Annalen des
Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien. Serie B für Botanik und Zoologie,361-394.
Sheehan, T. N., Ulyshen, M. D., Horn, S., and Hoebeke, E. R. 2019.
Vertical and horizontal distribution of bark and woodboring beetles by
feeding guild: is there an optimal trap location for detection? J.
Pest. Science. 92 : 327–341.
Shenkin, A., Chandler, C. J., Boyd, D. S., Jackson, T., Disney, M.,
Majalap, N., … Malhi, Y. 2019. The World’s Tallest Tropical Tree
in Three Dimensions. Front. for. glob. change. 2 : 32.
Si, X., Zhao, Y., Chen, C., Ren, P., Zeng, D., Wu, L., and Ding, P.
2017. Beta-diversity partitioning: methods, applications and
perspectives. Biodivers. Science . 25 : 464.
Soininen, J., Heino, J., and Wang, J. 2018. A meta-analysis of
nestedness and turnover components of beta diversity across organisms
and ecosystems. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 27 : 96–109.
Southwood, T. R. E., and Kennedy, C. E. J. 1983. Trees as Islands.Oikos . 359-371
Sreekar, R., Corlett, R. T., Dayananda, S., Goodale, U. M., Kilpatrick,
A., Kotagama, S. W., … and Goodale, E. 2017. Horizontal and vertical
species turnover in tropical birds in habitats with differing land use.Biol. Lett. 13 : 20170186.
Sreekar, R., Koh, L. P., Mammides, C., Corlett, R. T., Dayananda, S.,
Goodale, U. M., … Goodale, E. 2020. Drivers of bird beta
diversity in the Western Ghats–Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot are scale
dependent: roles of land use, climate, and distance. Oecologia .193 : 801-809.
Tuomisto, H., Ruokolainen, K., and Yli-Halla, M. 2003. Dispersal,
environment, and floristic variation of Western Amazonian forests.Science . 299 : 241-244.
Venegas‐Li, R., Levin, N., Possingham, H., and Kark, S. 2018. 3D spatial
conservation prioritisation: Accounting for depth in marine
environments. Methods. Ecol. Evol. 9 : 773–784.
Walsh, R. P. D., and Newbery, D. M. 1999. The ecoclimatology of Danum,
Sabah, in the context of the world’s rainforest regions, with particular
reference to dry periods and their impact. Proc. Royal Soc. B.354 : 1869-1883
Ward, P. S., Blaimer, B. B., and Fisher, B. L. 2016. A revised
phylogenetic classification of the ant subfamily Formicinae
(Hymenoptera: Formicidae), with resurrection of the generaColobopsis and Dinomyrmex . Zootaxa . 4072 :
343-357
Ward, P. S., Brady, S. G., Fisher, B. L., and Schultz, T. R. 2015. The
evolution of myrmicine ants: Phylogeny and biogeography of a
hyperdiverse ant clade (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Syst. Entomol.40 : 61-81.
Weiss, M., Procházka, J., Schlaghamerský, J., and Cizek, L. 2016.
Fine-Scale vertical stratification and guild composition of saproxylic
beetles in lowland and montane forests: Similar patterns despite low
faunal overlap. PLoS ONE . 11: e0149506.
Wermelinger, B., Flückiger, P. F., Obrist, M. K., and Duelli, P. 2007.
Horizontal and vertical distribution of saproxylic beetles (Col.,
Buprestidae, Cerambycidae, Scolytinae) across sections of forest edges.J. Appl .Entomol. 131 : 104-114.
Yusah, K. M., and Foster, W. A. 2016. Tree size and habitat complexity
affect ant communities (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in the high canopy of
Bornean rain forest. Myrmecol. News 23 : 15-23.
Yusah, K. M., Foster, W. A., Reynolds, G., and Fayle, T. M. 2018. Ant
mosaics in Bornean primary rain forest high canopy depend on spatial
scale, time of day, and sampling method. PeerJ . 6 :
e4231.
Zellweger, F., Roth, T., Bugmann, H., and Bollmann, K. 2017. Beta
diversity of plants, birds and butterflies is closely associated with
climate and habitat structure. Global Ecol. Biogeogr.26 : 898-906.
Table 1. Effects of total distance on pairwise dissimilarity of ant
assemblage between sampling points based on Multiple Regression on
Distance Matrices (MRM).
Coefficients with statistical
significance show in boldface.