Discussion
Our results showed that jaguars co-occur most frequently with the collared peccary (P. tajacu ) and the spotted paca (C. paca ). While we acknowledge that co-occurrence per se does not imply interaction, our data and models reveal observations made in other studies that showed P. tajacu and C. paca were taken as prey more than 85% of the time they were present in the community (Blanchet et al ., 2020; Hayward et al ., 2016). A study of jaguar diet in Chiapas, México (Cruz et al ., 2007) revealed that the collared peccary was found in the feces three times more frequently than any other prey species. While prey diversity is very variable within the jaguar distribution range, De Oliveira (2002) observed that, excluding livestock, the mean weight of prey is 14.42 ± 8.63 kg, suggesting that jaguars tend to hunt prey slightly smaller than themselves.
We hypothesize that the independent co-occurrence of jaguars with the other three prey species may be a function of abiotic factors or other environmental conditions that affect potential prey distribution, such as a negative interaction strong enough to exclude the species from capture even though it may co-occur with the jaguar (Blanchet et al ., 2020). Our sampling design may also have introduced a bias factor in the species captured. In contrast to other felids, foraging patterns of jaguars are driven by ecological and behavioral factors, like prey abundance and herd size, rather than morphological factors even though jaguars tend to avoid species outside their preferred weight range (Hayward et al ., 2016).
Although jaguars and cougars are sympatric and may share territories, they avoid being at the same place at the same time (Harsem et al ., 2009). Our study, which showed peak jaguar activity occurs at 21 – 22 hours, conforms to the observations of other studies and demonstrates this time frame ensures a temporal separation from the cougar, the other top predator in the area (De la Torre et al . 2017; Hernández et al ., 2013). Additionally, this nocturnal hunting pattern corresponds with peak activities of some prey, suggesting jaguar activity is influenced not only by interspecific competition but by the prey temporal patterns (Hernandez et al . 2013; Emmons, 1987). This pattern of peak nocturnal activity is not unlike what is observed with other sympatric felines in Mexico, the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis ) and margay (Leopardus wiedii ) and with the leopard (Panthera pardus ) that exhibited peak activity that included morning and evening twilight hours (Hubelet al ., 2018). Goulard et al . (2009) reported the nocturnal activity pattern in ocelots appeared to be the same as the pattern of their main prey, and Carvajal-Villareal et al . (2012) also reported nocturnal activity peaks for margays their maximum distances traveled occurred between 00:00 and 8:00 hours. Our study also revealed that the between-sex differences in distance traveled for the jaguar was proportional to that observed in leopards and ocelots; males of all three species traveled twice the distance as their female counterparts (Martins and Harris, 2013; Goulart et al ., 2009). Our data also showed that the significant seasonal differences in distances jaguars traveled was not replicated by other large felids. While leopards do not show significant seasonal differences in their movement patterns, the high monthly variability in distances traveled suggests external factors such as weather condition and prey distribution and abundance influence the movement of some top predators (Hubel et al ., 2018). Likewise, the rate of movement of tigers (Panthera tigris ) does not vary significantly across seasons (Sarkar et al ., 2016), but Buderman et al . (2017) found both sexes of the Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis ) moved faster during the summer months, with males traveling at a slightly faster than females.