Sepsis models
CLP sepsis models were established as described [4, 7]. Briefly, the mice were anesthetized using 3.5% isoflurane in 100% oxygen. A midline laparotomy was used, and the cecum was ligated with a 4-0 silk suture located at either 50% (low-grade) or 75% (high-grade) between the ileocecal junction and the distal end of the cecum. A through-and-through puncture was made using a 21-G needle. A small amount of the cecal contents were extruded to ensure the patency of the hole before returning the cecum to the abdominal cavity. The peritoneum was then closed. After surgery, the mice were resuscitated with 0.9% sterile saline (500 ml SC). The mice received buprenorphine (0.05 mg/kg SC) as an analgesic. The sham animals underwent the same procedure except for the ligation and puncture of the cecum. The control animals did not undergo surgery and were euthanized alongside the CLP animals.