References
Abad, F. X., Busquets, N., Sanchez, A., Ryan, P. G., Majo, N., & Gonzalez-Solis, J. (2013). Serological and virological surveys of the influenza A viruses in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic penguins. Antarctic Science, 25(2), 339-344.
Adamu, H. U., Balami, A. G., & Abdu, P.A. (2017). Avian influenza, Gumboro and Newcastle disease antibodies and antigens in apparently healthy wild birds in Kano metropolis, Nigeria. Nigeria Veterinary Journal, 38(1), 69-77.
Ahmed, B. M., El-Shazly, M. M., El-Sanousi, A. A., & Youssef, Y. I. (2017). Isolation of H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus from Cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis ) near affected broiler chicken flocks in Egypt. Journal of Virological Science, 2, 62-70.
Akanbi, O. B., Ekong, P. S., Odita, C. I., & Taiwo, V. O. (2016). The effect of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreaks on mixed species poultry farms in Nigeria. Journal of World Poultry Research, 6(3), 147-152.
Alexander, D. J. (2000). A review of avian influenza in different bird species. Veterinary Microbiology, 74(1-2), 3-13.
Alexander, D. J. (2008). Avian influenza – diagnosis. Zoonoses and Public Health, 55, 16-23.
Ameji, N. O., Sa’idu, L., & Abdu, P. A. (2017). Detection of avian influenza antibodies and antigens in poultry and some wild birds in Kogi State, Nigeria. Sokoto Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 15(3), 62-68.
Ansari, W. K., Parvej, M. S., El-Zowalaty, M. E., Jackson, S., Bustin, S. A., et al., (2016). Surveillance, epidemiological and virological detection of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza viruses in duck and poultry from Bangladesh. Veterinary Microbiology, 193, 49-59.
Bennette, S., Woods, T., Liyanage, W. M., & Smith, D. L. (1991). A simplified general method for cluster sampling surveys of health in developing countries. World Health Statistician Quarterly, 44, 98-106.
Bowes, V. A., Ritchie, S. J., Byrne, S., Sojonky, K., Bidulka, J. J., & Robinson, J. H. (2004). Virus characterization, clinical presentation, and pathologyassociatedwith H7N3 avian influenza in British Columbia broiler breeder chickens in 2004. Avian Diseases, 48(4), 928-934.
Capua, I., & Marangon, S. (2006). Control of avian influenza in poultry. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(9), 1319-1324.
De Benedictis, P., Joannis, T., Lombin, L.H., Shittu, I., Beato, M. S., et al., (2007). Field and laboratory findings of the first incursion of the Asian H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in Africa. Avian Pathology, 36, 115-117.
Fagbohun, O. A., Owoade, A. A., Oluwayelu, D. O., & Olayemi, F. O. (2000). Serological survey of infectious bursal disease virus antibodies in Cattle egrets, pigeons and Nigerian laughing doves. African Journal of Biomedical Research, 3(3), 191-192.
Feldmann, A., Schafer, M. K. H., Garten, W., & Klenk, H. (2000). Targeted infection of endothelial cells by avian influenza virus A/FPV/Rostock/34 (H7N1) in chicken embryos. Journal of Virology, 74(17), 8018-8027.
Joannis, T., Lombin, L. H., De Benedictis, P., Cattoli, G., & Capua, I. (2006). Confirmation of H5N1 avian influenza in Africa. The Veterinary Record, 158, 309-310.
Kilpatrick, A. M., Chmura, A. A., Gibbons, D. W., Fleischer, R. C., Marra, P. P., & Daszak, P. (2006). Predicting the global spread of H5N1 avian influenza. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 103, 19368-19373.
Kirunda, H., Erima, B., Tumushabe, A., Kiconco, J., Tugume, T., et al., (2014). Prevalence of influenza A viruses in livestock and free-living waterfowl in Uganda. Biomedcentral Veterinary Research, 10(50), 1-9.
Mohammed, Y. Z., Abdul-Dahiru, E., Yasheruram, M. S., Meshach, M. M., Mustapha, B. A., et al., (2017). Serological detection of avian influenza virus (H5N2) antibody among domestic avian species in Maiduguri Metropolis, Nigeria. International Journal of Advance Agricultural Research, 5, 23-33.
Musa, W. I., Abdullahi, B. Y., Lawal, S., Bello, M., & Abdu, P. A. (2017). Detection of antibodies to avian influenza, infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease viruses in wild birds in three states of Nigeria. Sokoto Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 15, 28-35.
Nguyen, D. C., Uyeki, T. M., Jadhao, S., Maines, T., Shaw, M., et al., (2005). Isolation and characterization of avian influenza viruses, including highly pathogenic H5N1, from poultry in live bird markets inHanoi, Vietnam, in 2001. Journal of Virology, 79(7), 4201-4212.
OIE. (2015). Avian influenza. In: Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals. 5th ed. Office International des Epizooties, Paris, France. pp. 270-282.
Olsen, B., Munster, V. J., Wallensten, A., Waldenström, J., Osterhaus, A. D., & Fouchier, R. A. (2006). Global patterns of influenza A virus in wild birds. Science, 312, 384-388.
Pantin-Jackwood, M. J., Stephens, C. B., Bertran, K., Swayne, D. E., & Spackman, E. (2017). The pathogenesis of H7N8 low and highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses from the United States 2016 outbreak in chickens, turkeys and mallards. PLoS ONE, 12(5), 1-21.
Rebel, J. M., Peeters, M., Fijten, H., Post, J., Cornelissen, J., & Vervelde, L. (2011). Highly pathogenic or low pathogenic avian influenza virus subtype H7N1 infection in chicken lungs: Small differences in general acute responses. Veterinary Research, 42, 10-16.
Spackman, E., Pantin-Jackwood, M. J., Kapczynski, D. R., Swayne, D. E., & Suarez, D.L. (2016). H5N2 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses from the US 2014–2015out break have an unusually long pre-clinical period in turkeys. BMC Veterinary Research, 12(1), 260.
Spackman, E., Senne, D. A., Myers, T. J., Bulaga, L. L., Garber, L. P., et al., (2002). Development of a real-time reverse transcriptase PCR assay for type A influenza virus and the avian H5 and H7 haemagglutinin subtypes. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 40, 3256-3260.
Stallknecht, D. E., & Brown, J. D. (2007). Wild birds and the epidemiology of avian influenza. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 43, S15-S20.
Swayne, D. E., Suarez, D. L., & Sims, L. D. (2013). Influenza.In : Swayne D (ed). Diseases of Poultry . 13th ed. Blackwell Publisher, Ames, IA, Pp. 181-218.
Vincent, M., Xiaoyan, Z., Edith, M., Beibei, J., Guo, F., et al., (2011). Risk-based surveillance for avian influenza control along poultry market chains in South China: The value of social network analysis. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.07.007
Webster, R. G., Bean, W. J., Gorman, O. T., Chambers, T. M., & Kawaoka, Y. (1992). Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. Microbiology Review, 56(1), 152-179.
Wood, G. W., Banks, J., Strong, I., Parsons, G., & Alexander, D. J. (1996). An avian influenza virus of H10 subtype that is highly pathogenic for chickens but lacks multiple basic amino acids at the haemagglutinin cleavage site. Avian Pathology, 25, 799-806.
Yu, Y., Kikuyasu, N., Masatoshi, O., Manabu, Y., & Masaji, M. (2008). Avian influenza virus (H5N1) replication in feathers of domestic waterfowl. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 14(1), 1-9.
Zanella, A., Dall’Ara, P., & Martino, P. A. (2001). Avian influenza epidemic in Italy due to serovar H7N1. Avian Diseases, 45(1), 257-261.
Table 1: Distribution of avian influenza virus antibody in some wild birds in Zaria and its environs determined by competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.