Fig. 7 Relationships between wind erosion and fractional vegetation cover (FVC) in southern Africa between 1991 and 2015. (a) Spatial distribution of FVC, and (b) spatial pattern for the correlations between wind erosion and mean annual FVC.

4.3 Uncertainties and limitations

Soil wind erosion is a common environmental problem in arid and semi-arid areas across the world (Dewitte, Jones, Elbelrhiti, Horion, & Montanarella, 2012). The relationship between dust emission sources and soil erosion caused by wind in arid and semi-arid areas has been previously reported (Bullard, Baddock, McTainsh, & Leys, 2008; Gillette & Hanson, 1989; F. R. Li, Zhao, Zhang, Zhang, & Shirato, 2004), but there are still challenges in quantifying the temporal and spatial soil wind erosion patterns on a larger, regional scale. This study assessed the changes in soil wind erosion across southern Africa between 1991 and 2015 (Fig. 2). The results showed that the spatial and temporal patterns for soil wind erosion were basically the same as those obtained by different methods. The inland areas of southern Africa and the Namib Desert were the major areas affected by soil wind erosion (Goudie, 2008; Symeonakis & Drake, 2010). Wiggs and Holmes (2011) conducted a field assessment of dust deposition on farmland in Free State, South Africa, and the erosion modulus from August 7 to November 13, 2007 was about 0.4819 t/ha, which was similar to this study (0.69 t/ha). In addition, previous studies on large-scale spatial patterns for dust emissions also showed that there was significant soil wind erosion in southern Africa (Luo, Mahowald, & Corral, 2003; Shao et al., 2011). However, there are still uncertainties in the model calculation results due to the low availability of higher resolution data for southern Africa.
This study focused on analyzing the temporal and spatial patterns for soil wind erosion and its influence factors rather than the precise calculation of the amount of soil wind erosion at a certain point in time or place. This meant that the results of this article are referenceable. In addition, this study analyzed annual average temperature, annual precipitation, and near-surface wind speed in order to reveal the impact of long-term climate dynamics on soil wind erosion. However, less attention was paid to the possible impact of a single climate event on soil wind erosion. Future research should concentrate on the effects of specific climate events, such as extreme drought or precipitation caused by the ENSO, on soil wind erosion.

5. Conclusion

This study used the RWEQ model to evaluate soil wind erosion and its temporal and spatial changes in southern Africa from 1991 to 2015. It also investigated the impact of climate dynamics on soil wind erosion. The results showed that the wind erosion changes in southern Africa strongly fluctuated. The overall wind erosion modulus significantly declined at the beginning of the study period, but then stabilized after 2010. However, soil wind erosion in the western coastal areas was very serious and had an upward trend year by year. Near-surface wind speed is the dominant factor affecting soil wind erosion. The near-surface wind speed decline in southern Africa had a positive impact because it reduced soil wind erosion across 68.18% of the study area. Furthermore, soil wind erosion was significantly related to temperature and precipitation (p < 0.05) in only 18.96% and 24.63% of the area, respectively. In addition, the differences in vegetation cover due to temperature and precipitation also indirectly affected soil wind erosion in southern Africa. According to this multi-source data analysis, increasing the vegetation coverage in arid and semi-arid areas will effectively reduce near-surface wind speed. This will solidify the soil, which, in turn, should play a positive role in decreasing and controlling wind erosion.

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