Dose Effect Main molecular mechanisms of action Model References
10-9– 10-6 M Inhibition of neutrophils function Suppressed the release of MPO, NE and MMP-9 Neutrophils adhesion to HUVECs (Jones et al., 2005)
1–1000 nM L_1 Inhibition of the prothrombotic functions of PMNs and MNs Inhibited the release of NETs and suppressed tissue factor expression in MNs Human PLTs and PMNs (Totani et al., 2016)
500 ug/d Anti-inflammatory effects Inhibited phosphodiesterase-4 enzyme that targets the systemic inflammation associated with COPD and decreased inflammatory mediators COPD patients (Martinez et al., 2015)
500 ug/d
Anti-inflammatory effects
Inhibited allergen-induced sputum eosinophils, neutrophils and ECP
Allergic asthmatic patients
(Gauvreau et al., 2011; Bateman et al., 2016)
0.3 – 1.0 mg/kg body
Prevention of polymicrobial sepsis
Reduced bacterial load, inhibited expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines mainly IL-6 and TNF-alpha and suppressed NF-κB, p38 MAPK and STAT3
Mice with cecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis
(Feng et al., 2017)
1, 10, and 100 n mol/L and 1 μ mol/L dissolved in DMSO Inhibition of airway remodeling Inhibited ECM protein deposition and thereby, airway remodeling Human ASM cells (Burgess et al., 2006)
5 mg/kg/d, suspended in 2.5% polyethylene glycol 4% methylcellulose solution
Inhibition of airway remodeling
Reduced the accumulation of chronic inflammatory cells, and thickening of airway epithelium
BALB/c mice model of chronic asthma
(Kumar et al., 2003)
10-9– 10-6 M Anti-proliferative effects Attenuated cell proliferation and production of (MMP-2 and MMP-9) Distal human PASMCs (Growcott et al., 2006)
5 mg/kg/day
Anti- fibrotic effects
Antagonized metabolic effects related to pulmonary fibrosis (like alterations in the oxidative equilibrium, a strong inflammatory response and collagen synthesis activation)
Bleomycin-Induced Fibrosis in mice
(Milara et al., 2015a)
10-6– 10-7 M Anti-fibrotic effects Antagonized the profibrotic activity of fibroblasts stimulated by TGF-beta1 Adult human lung fibroblast cell lines (Togo et al., 2009)
500 ug/d Anti-hyperglycemic effects Enhanced secretion of intestinal GLP-1, a main incretin with potent insulinotropic effect 35–70 yr. patients with newly diagnosed DM type II (Wouters et al., 2012)