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\begin{document}

\title{A research hypothesis: Considering Traavik findings (1973-1980), during
a SARS-CoV-2 pandemic~~~~}



\author[1]{Monate Mkolo}%
\affil[1]{Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University}%


\vspace{-1em}



  
  \date{May 29, 2024}


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\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
The pandemic has triggered worldwide social and economic disturbance,
with the leading economic depression from the time when there was a
Great Depression. Moreover, misleading information about the virus has
spread far and wide; even some public members have raised direct
questions about the possibilities of ticks to transmit the virus. These
questions have not received a simple solution so far. Thus, the key idea
of this paper is to provide hints and hypothesis about the publicly
raised questions about the possibilities of ticks transmitting
SARS-CoV-2. The approach of the mentioned questions was based on the
broader perspective of using the systemic review, where this newly
discovered virus (SARS-CoV-2) was put into context with respect to the
once mentioned ticks coronavirus-like of Traavik et al., during the
1973-1980 period. The possibilities of ticks to transmit the virus was
hypothesized. Proving or disproving this hypothesis for the emergence of
SARS-CoV-2 might be possible. Therefore, the role of ticks to transmit
the virus needs more attention. This could lead to more efficient
measures, to block the rise of another coronavirus epidemic with
persistent transmission in humans.%
\end{abstract}%



\sloppy


\textbf{KEYWORDS}

SARS-CoV-2, ticks, virus and hypothesis.

\textbf{1 INTRODUCTION}

On the~30\textsuperscript{th}January 2020, World Health
Organization~affirmed the outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) as
a health crisis of global concern and on the 11\textsuperscript{th}
March 2020, as a pandemic (World Health Organization {[}WHO{]}, 2020a,
2020b). The outbreak was initially detected in~China, Wuhan, around
December 2019 (WHO, 2020c; Huang et al., 2020). Currently, COVID-19 is a
persisting~pandemic, triggered by~severe acute respiratory syndrome
coronavirus 2~(SARS-CoV-2) (WHO, 2020d). Before we proceed, it is
interesting to briefly review the current problem. As of
21\textsuperscript{st} June 2020,~more than 8,815,743 cases~of
SARS-CoV-2 have been conveyed in 188 different countries, ensuing
464,895 mortalities (COVID-19 Dashboard by Center for Systems Science
and Engineering {[}CSSE{]}, 2020). The pandemic has triggered
worldwide~social~and~economic~disturbance, with~the leading economic
depression~from the time when there was a Great Depression
(International Monetary Fund {[}IMF{]} Blog, 2020). Moreover, misleading
information about the virus~has spread far and wide (Clamp, 2020); even
some public members have raised direct questions about the possibilities
of ticks to transmit the virus (Annapolis, 2020). These questions have
not received a simple solution so far. The Entomological Society of
America by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, have provided information that there
is no evidence to support the fact that ticks can transmit SARS-CoV-2
(Entomological Society of America, 2020). A closer look at the
literature reveals a few gaps and shortcomings. With that in mind, I
raise more questions about the findings of Traavik and his colleagues,
reported four decades ago, during the 1973-1980 period; can their work
be considered to provide hints and hypothesis that can be tested to
answer the above mentioned questions?

\par\null

\textbf{1.1 Objective and scope of the paper}

The key idea is to provide hints and hypothesis concerning the publicly
raised questions about the possibilities of ticks to transmit
SARS-CoV-2. The provided hints and hypothesis can be tested by targeted
audience mentioned below. The approach of the mentioned questions was
based on the broader perspective of using the systemic review, where
this newly discovered virus (SARS-COV-2) was put into context with
respect to the once mentioned tick coronavirus-like of Traavik et al.,
during the 1973-1980 period.

\textbf{1.2 Targeted audience}

This paper is developed as a complementary and informative document for
voluntary adoption by participating users, including academics,
researchers, decision makers, veterinary and healthcare professionals.

\textbf{2 METHODOLOGY FOR RETRIEVAL OF THE EVIDENCE}

To provide hints and hypothesis about the possibilities of ticks to
transmit SARS-CoV-2, the evidence within a systematic review was
captured. The considered evidence was the 1\textsuperscript{st} January
1970 to the 1\textsuperscript{st} June 2020. Medline; Scopus; EMBASE;
Google Scholar, Scifinder and the WHO Institutional Repository databases
were analysed. Information sharing was achieved by using variations of
the following search strategy:

\textbf{Transmission:} ``coronavirus/ Runde coronavirus-like transmitted
by ticks'' or ``SARS-CoV transmitted by ticks'' or ``SARS-CoV-2
transmitted by ticks'' or ``Covid-19 transmitted by ticks''.

\textbf{Structure:} ``coronavirus/ Runde coronavirus-like structure
ticks'' or ``SARS-CoV structure ticks'' or ``SARS-CoV-2 structure
ticks'' or ``Covid-19 structure ticks''.

\textbf{Host range:} ``coronavirus/ Runde coronavirus-like host range
ticks'' or ``SARS-CoV host range ticks'' or ``SARS-CoV-2 host range
ticks'' or ``Covid-19 host range ticks''.

\textbf{Distribution:} ``coronavirus/ Runde coronavirus-like
distribution ticks'' or ``SARS-CoV distribution ticks'' or ``SARS-CoV-2
distribution ticks'' or ``Covid-19 distribution ticks''.

Cross-referencing was done to find extra studies meeting the inclusion
criteria. The published articles were evaluated by reading the full
text. The Integrated quality criteria for review of multiple study
designs (ICROMS) scoring system was used to assess the standard of
articles (Zingg et al., 2016). The standard of appropriate studies was
ranked as `low', `moderate' or `high'. The hypothesis was then
formulated based on the appropriate evidence of each study.

\textbf{3 RETRIEVED EVIDENCE}

Several studies were examined, and 31 citations were found from all the
databases: based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 8 experimental
articles were found relevant for systematic review (Figure 1). The
evidence from these 31 studies was identified to be of low (24
articles), moderate (1 article) and high (7 articles) standards. Eight
experimental studies were specific and relevant about providing hints
about the possibilities of ticks transmitting coronavirus like. The
seven experimental studies were sourced from Traavik and colleagues,
from the 1973s to 1978s, while one was obtained from Saikku and
colleagues, reported in the 1980s (Figure 1).

Studies by Traavik and colleagues at Runde Island, Norway during the
1973s, were initiated in the attempt to solve the mystery of unusually
high chick mortalities from seabird colonies reported. In the first
study efforts were made in the 1973s, where a collection of \emph{Ixodes
uriae} samples from the seabird colonies and isolations of potential
tick-borne arboviruses were conducted. During the 1975s, the second
study was reported, where apart from the viruses isolates namely,
Tick-borne encephalitis and Uukuniemi group viruses, additional two same
strains of a coronavirus-like were found from \emph{I. uriae} ticks
collected during the 1973s. This latter result leads to the collection
of Seabird sera samples, early May from Hernyken, R\selectlanguage{ngerman}Øst Island, Norway
(Traavik, Meel, \& Kjeldsberg, 1977). During the 1977s, the third study
was reported, where the coronavirus like strain was tentatively named
Runde virus linked with Seabirds and \emph{I. uriae} . The virus was
termed Runde virus after the island name where the seabird colonies were
situated (Traavik, Meel, \& Kjeldsberg, 1977; Traavik \& Brunvold,
1978). Several more landmark studies (Traavik, 1977; Traavik
\&~Brunvold, 1978; Traavik, 1978,1979) were conducted and reported in
the 1977s and 1978s in the attempt to back up the evidence of Traavik,
Meel and Kjeldsberg (1977). Evidence from the cohort study indicated
that the isolation of a coronavirus like agent transmitted
transstadially and sustained for six months in \emph{I. uriae} , was
thought-provoking (Saikku, Main, Ulmanen, \& Brummer-Korvenkontio,
1980). There evidence is available, however Saikku, Main, Ulmanen and
Brummer-Korvenkontio (1980), work does not overwhelmingly support the
findings of Traavik, Meel and Kjeldsberg (1977); due to the lack of
resources (for example, RT-PCR, RT-qPCR molecular analysis and
metagenomic sequencing) four decades ago. Nonetheless, the ecological
conditions of the isolations designated a coronavirus circulating among
the \emph{I. uriae} and its seabird hosts.

\textbf{3.1 Significance of the previous research by Traavik and
colleagues}

The previous prospective research by Traavik and colleagues has made
innovative contributions in several areas, especially in Acarology,
Ecology and Virology. The knowledge about the coronavirus circulating
among the \emph{I. uriae} and its seabird hosts provide a hint about the
possibilities of ticks to harbour and transmit coronavirus. Although,
their results cannot be claimed to universally be the case for all
different kinds of tick species and coronavirus. It is hard to
comprehend why this knowledge should be excluded from the raised
questions about the possibilities of any tick species be able to harbour
and circulate coronavirus like SARC-CoV-2. Thus, the information is
vital since there is ample of evidence about the different kinds of tick
species that share ecological niches with potential vertebrate
reservoir, such as bats, seabirds and pangolins (Olival et al., 2017;
Fagre \& Kading, 2019; Málková~et al., 1985; Dietrich, Go´mez-D\selectlanguage{polish}ı\selectlanguage{ngerman}´az, \&
McCoy, 2010; Ramos et al., 2001; Gao et al., 2020; Khatri-Chhetri et
al., 2016; Mohapatra, Panda,~Nair, \& Acharjyo, 2016; Robinson,~1983).

Classification of ticks is well done in pangolins consisting of eight
genera and twenty species of ticks described from six species of
pangolins namely, \emph{Manis pentadactyla, M. javanica,
M.crassicaudata} ,~\emph{M. gigantea, M. tricuspis} and \emph{M.
temminckii} . The most intriguing finding is that unassigned ticks that
were described from~\emph{M. tetradactyla} by Robinson
(1983).\emph{Amblyomma} , \emph{Rhipicephalus} and \emph{Aponomma}
genera of ticks have been described from the above mentioned Asian and
African pangolin species. Asian pangolins namely, \emph{M. pentadactyla,
M. javanica} and \emph{M. crassicaudata} have been associated
with\emph{Amblyomma javanense} . While, African pangolins namely,
\emph{M. temminckii, M. tricuspis} and \emph{M. gigantean} have been
associated with \emph{Amblyomma} ~\emph{compressum} ~(Sanyal, De, Rao,
\& Acharjyo, 1987; Parola et al., 2003; Mohapatra, Panda,~Nair, \&
Acharjyo, 2016). Possible geographic distribution of hard ticks linked
with pangolins is provided in figure 2. The geographic distribution was
developed from different research work of Hassan, Sulaiman and Lian
(2013), Kollars and Sithiprasasna (2000), Parola et al. (2003), Li, Lin,
Lan, Pei and Su (2011), Mediannikov et al. (2012) and Njiokou et al.
(2006).

Different reviews of the literature undertaken by Nuttall (1984) and
Chastel (1980), reported that seabird ticks harbour approximately 60
viruses or variants. Evidence about viraemic transmission to seabirds
has been provided by Nunn et al. (2006). Moreover, Dietrich et al.
(2010), reported that hard ticks prefer to infest seabird colonies in
higher latitudes. The main example is \emph{I. uriae} , which is the
most significant species when focusing on its host species assortment
and geographical distribution (Pettersson et al., 2020). Possible
geographic distribution of hard ticks linked with seabirds is provided
in figure 3. The geographic distribution was developed from the research
work of Dietrich et al. (2010).

Several landmark studies observed associate phylogenetically viruses in
bats with various arboviruses which can be transmitted by ticks (Fagre
\& Kading, 2019). Isolation results are providing evidence of bats being
responsible for viruses isolated from either soft ticks or hard ticks.
For instance, a study of Málková et al. (1985), provides evidence,
where\emph{Ornithodoros tadaridae} ticks obtained from a palm tree
colonized by Cuban bats were found to be infected with Estero real
virus. Recently, different kinds of Ixodes species (i.e. \emph{Ixodes
ariadnae} , \emph{I. simplex} and \emph{I. vespertilionis} )
and\emph{Dermacentor reticulatus} have been associated with bats (Sándor
et al., 2019). Possible geographic distribution of hard ticks linked
with bats is provided in figure 4. The geographic distribution was
developed from different research work of Zahn and Rupp (2004), Hornok
et al. (2014) and Hornok et al. (2016).

\textbf{3.2 Implications for human health}

In the light of reported evidence by Traavik and Brunvold, (1978), where
the isolated Runde coronavirus agent from virus families that have RNA
genomes, it is conceivable that this RNA virus may have ``proofreading''
systems deficiency than DNA viruses, and therefore it may be more
inclined to develop and maintain genome mutations (Graepel et al.,
2017). Thus, it would be reasonable to assume that this RNA virus is
more likely to emerge, and for it to be capable to replicate in the
cytoplasm is the best speculator of cross-species transmission from
animals (for example, the above mentioned seabirds, bats and pangolins)
to humans (Pulliam \& Dushoff, 2009). Therefore, it is critical to
consider this assumption since, bat ticks can also bite humans and they
are capable to transmit viruses between bats and human (Socolovschi,
Kernif, Raoult \& Parola, 2012; Jaenson et al., 1994). The
epidemiological importance for the transmission of diseases to humans
from bats and bat associated ticks has become a major concern, although
limited by lack of detailed information about bat ticks pathogen
association and distribution (Loftis et al. 2005).\textbf{~} However,
growing urbanisation and bats adaptation to urban habitats has raised
the chances for contact between domestic animals and humans with bat
associated ticks and bats (Hornok et al., 2016; Krauel \& LeBuhn, 2016).
Moreover, Guglielmone et al. (2014) reported ten different types of tick
species feeding on pangolins also feeding on unlikely animal hosts. Some
of the pangolin's ticks have been reported to bite humans (Estrada-Pena
\& Jongejan, 1999; Parola et al., 2013; Durden, Merker, \& Beati, 2008;
Burridge, 2001; Audy, Nadchatram, \& Lim, 1960). Limited reports of
seabird tick bites to humans have been recognized (Gylfe et al., 1999;
Duneau et al., 2008; Dietrich et al., 2010).

However, the fact that there are few reported cases of tick bites (ticks
associated with seabird, bat and pangolin); it does not suggest that
tick bites to humans do not occur. This can be due to unreported cases
and undeveloped illness by the bitten person. Besides, areas where
seabird, bat and pangolin ticks co-occur with other tick species that
are significant vectors of animal and human pathogens signify likely
contact areas for pathogen transmission. Anthroponotic factors related
to the modern lifestyle can facilitate the emerging of tick-borne
viruses. Today, we persistently recognize and obliged to deal with new
cases of emerging viruses including tick-borne viral diseases (e.g. Wang
et al. (2019), reported a new segmented virus associated with human
febrile illness and ticks in China). Moreover, due to anthroponotic
factors, it is not surprising that the outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 has been
tentatively related with a seafood market in Wuhan, China, where the
trading of wild animals may be the cause of zoonotic infection (Lu
et~al., 2020; Cohen, 2020). This assumption can be true since different
kinds of mammalian species were purchase before SARS-CoV-2 outbreak at
the Huanan seafood market as mentioned by Cohen (2020). Malayan
pangolins (\emph{Manis javanica} ) smuggled into Southern China, are the
only mammals except for \emph{Rhinolophus affinis} bat (sampled from
Yunnan in the year 2013) recognized to be affected by a SARS-CoV-2
related coronavirus (Lam et al., 2020; Zhou et~al., 2020). This current
finding by Lam et al. (2020), cannot be ignored, since the sampled
pangolins independently acquired SARS-CoV-2 related viruses from bats or
different animal host. However, their position as intermediate host in
the development of human SARS-CoV-2 is still unclear. There is a clear
dearth of consensus among researchers about the occurrence of
coronaviruses, together with those associated to SARS-CoV-2, in
different kinds of wild mammals found in Asia (Wang et~al., 2005; Liu,
Chen, \& Chen, 2019; Wang et~al., 2017). These are the most relevant
findings and perhaps also the most significant, since, different tick
species can be associated with both mammals (bats and pangolins), and
they may also harbour coronavirus as proven by Traavik, Meel and
Kjeldsberg (1977), Traavik and Mehl (1975) and Saikku et al., 1980.

All these above-mentioned findings are thought-provoking, and it could
be hypothesized that ticks may possibly transmit SARS-CoV-2 to humans
via different ways.

\textbf{3.3 Possible hypothesis}

The hypothesis was substantial enough necessitating a full descriptive
cycle diagram. Therefore, figure 5 provides a hypothesis about the
possible ways that \emph{I. uriae} ticks can use to transmit SARS-CoV-2
to humans. In relation to the evolution of host specificity and local
adaptation of ticks (Klompen, Black, Keirans, \& Oliver, 1996), permits
us to form the described potential hypothesis that remains to be
scientifically proven.

\textbf{4 FINAL REMARKS}

The possibilities of ticks to transmit the virus was hypothesized.
Proving or disproving this hypothesis for the emergence of SARS-CoV-2
might be possible. Since, such viruses may be asymptomatic in their
hosts, but the balance may be tipped over, and overt disease or
behavioural aberrations may occur due to ecosystem and climate
alterations. In some instances, such viruses may cross a species barrier
and affect other tick species, wildlife species, domestic animals and
humans. Nonetheless, isolation of coronavirus-like from a range of
animals, including ticks may possibly assist to clarify the steps to
emergence in humans. Therefore, the role of ticks to transmit the virus
needs more attention. These could lead to more efficient measures to
block the rise of another coronavirus epidemic with persistent
transmission in humans.

\textbf{ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS}

I would like to thank Prof. Obi C.L. (Dean) and the research department
from Sefako Makgatho Health Science University for their encouragement
during this trying time.

\textbf{CONFLICT OF INTEREST}

No conflict of interest to be declared by the author.

\textbf{AUTHORS CONTRIBUTION}

Mkolo N.M. prepared wrote and revised the manuscript.

\textbf{ETHICAL STATEMENT}

Not applicable.

\textbf{DATA AVAILABILITY}

Data sharing not applicable to this review as no datasets were produced
or analysed for this study.

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\textbf{FIGURE LEGENDS}

\textbf{FIGURE 1} Evidence captured within a systematic review (from
year 1973 to year 2020) to provide hints and more hypotheses on the
origin of tick's coronavirus and the possibilities of ticks transmitting
coronavirus.

\textbf{FIGURE 2} Possible geographical distribution of hard ticks
linked with pangolins. \textbf{Note:} geographical distribution of some
of the ticks linked with pangolins was unidentified. Map created with
VIsME software.

\textbf{FIGURE 3} Possible geographic distribution of hard ticks linked
with seabirds. Map created with VIsME software.

\textbf{FIGURE 4} Possible geographic distribution of hard ticks linked
with bats. Map created with VIsME software.

\textbf{FIGURE 5} Hypothesis about the possible ways that \emph{I.
uriae} ticks can use to transmit SARS-CoV-2 to humans.\selectlanguage{english}
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