4. Conclusions

Our results suggest that green roof installation on existing roofs in Nanchang could effectively mitigate urban flooding and improve groundwater recharge. The numerical simulations indicate that the GRS can be more effective than the TRS for managing precipitation events. On a single event basis, a GRS is better at reducing surface runoff and peak flow for a 2-yr precipitation event than for the heavier 10-yr and 100-yr precipitation events. The reduction in runoff volume between the TRS and GRS decreases as precipitation intensity increases: 42%, 34%, and 27% reductions for 2-yr, 10-yr, and 100-yr precipitation events, respectively. Peak flow in the GRS decreased by 31%, 15%, and 8% compared with those in the TRS for 2-yr, 10-yr, and 100-yr precipitation events, respectively. There is effectively no time lag (~1 min) between the surface runoff peaks from TRS and GRS for the same precipitation event. Furthermore, not only the flood volume of GRS reduced by 82% and 28% compared with TRS in 10-year and 100-year precipitation event as well as the peak flood flow decreased by 72% and 19%, the hydraulic conditions of GRS is also better than TRS by reducing the overflow volume and the flooding period of nodes and conduits. We showed by using continuous simulations that ET, which is affected by local climatic factors, plays a crucial role in determining runoff reduction from green roof application. The Penman-Monteith, Pan Evaporation methods, and Granger-Gray method were consistent in predicting that ET accounts for ~39% of total precipitation in a GRS. We found that the default Hargreaves method in the SWMM predicted a significantly smaller loss via ET (i.e., ~26% of total precipitation) and the evaporation output from the SWMM is only ~12% of total precipitation. The potential of GRS in Nanchang was partly due to the high (39%) proportion of precipitation lost via ET.
The simulations demonstrate that the IGRS can provide more hydrological benefits than the GRS under the same climate conditions. Although the efficiency of controlling surface runoff is lower than that in the GRS, the IGRS improves storm water recharge into the subsurface, thereby decreasing the burden on the CSS / SWS and potentially alleviating groundwater depletion. The enhanced IGRS infiltration accounts for 10 - 19% of precipitation (depending on green belt width), which was significantly higher than that for GRS (~1%).
Our results suggest that the GRS and the IGRS can be used in different areas depending on whether the primary demand of each urban area is to mitigate urban flooding or recharge groundwater. The simulation of the hydrological processes associated with the GRS and the IGRS under local climate conditions could productively be applied in other densely developed cities in MLRYR.

Acknowledgements:

L.S. and J.N. were partially supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (41972244), NSF project of Guangdong, China under Contract 2018A030313165, and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China (11618340). L.L was supported by National Young Scholar Training fund from China Scholarship Council. WJR was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Biological and Environmental Research under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 to Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Tables

Table 1. The test results of insensitive parameters in the GRS model