2.1 study sites
This study area was in Kedarnath Valley (30°31. 44.7” N and
30°58’64.5” N, and 79°6’ 21.1” E, to 79° 02’028.95” E) in the
Rudraprayag district of the central Himalaya. The study area has
undulating topography with altitudes ranging from 1,335 to 1,609
m.a.s.l. The average annual rainfall was 1971 mm, with the most
(70-80%) rainfall occurring during June–September which triggers large
numbers of landslides in the area. The area receives medium to massive
snowfall during December-February months. The temperature range from
8.32 to 13.15 ◦C in winter (December to February)
months and 27.75 to 32.54 ◦C in summer (May to July)
months. The soil was brown-black, sandy loam, podzolic in nature
(Cambisols, USDA Soil Taxonomy), and high organic matter content, low
bulk density, and large boulders were common in the area (Joshi &
Garkoti 2020; Joshi & Garkoti 2021a). Emergent trees (up to 20 m tall)
dominate the forest, which is a mix of evergreen broad-leaved and
deciduous, i.e., nitrogen-fixing Alnus nepalensis D. Don,Rhododendron arboreum Smith, Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.)
Drude, Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus, Pyrus pashia L,Myrica esculenta Buch.- Ham. ex D.Don, Symplocos
paniculata Miq, Litsea umbrosa Nees (Joshi & Garkoti 2021b).
The important shrubs are Berberis aristata DC, Rhus
parviflora Roxb, Pyracantha crenulata (D.Don), Carissa
congesta Wight, Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall. Ex Lindl, andRubus ellipticus Sm., and the main herbs are Arthraxon
lanceolatus (Roxb.) Hochst, Ainsliaea aptera DC., Erigeron
bellidiodes L., Craniotome versicolor Rchb., Cyperus
rotundus L., and Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng.